diff --git a/.JuliaFormatter.toml b/.JuliaFormatter.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4b8f03a0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.JuliaFormatter.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+# Options for the JuliaFormatter auto syntax formatting tool.
+# https://domluna.github.io/JuliaFormatter.jl/stable/
+# https://docs.sciml.ai/SciMLStyle/stable/
+
+# Based on the default style we do pick these non-default options from SciML style:
+whitespace_ops_in_indices = true
+remove_extra_newlines = true
+always_for_in = true
+whitespace_typedefs = true
+
+# And add other options we like:
+separate_kwargs_with_semicolon = true
diff --git a/.github/workflows/CI.yml b/.github/workflows/CI.yml
index 868c5ee46..60504c78b 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/CI.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/CI.yml
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ on:
   push:
     branches:
       - master
+      - v1
     tags: '*'
 jobs:
   test:
diff --git a/.github/workflows/CIWflowServer.yml b/.github/workflows/CIWflowServer.yml
index a051bcf52..126361940 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/CIWflowServer.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/CIWflowServer.yml
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ on:
   push:
     branches:
       - master
+      - v1
     tags: '*'
 jobs:
   test:
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 604242d59..aff6d881c 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -1,9 +1,6 @@
 # General
 .DS_Store
 
-# VS Code stuff
-.vscode
-
 # Packaging stuff
 *.jl.*.cov
 *.jl.cov
diff --git a/.vscode/settings.json b/.vscode/settings.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c24c4ee94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.vscode/settings.json
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+{
+    "[julia]": {
+        "editor.formatOnSave": true,
+    },
+    "julia.lint.disabledDirs": [
+        ".pixi"
+    ],
+    "julia.lint.run": true,
+}
diff --git a/build/create_binaries/download_test_data.jl b/build/create_binaries/download_test_data.jl
index 3ff5f5437..339e19b91 100644
--- a/build/create_binaries/download_test_data.jl
+++ b/build/create_binaries/download_test_data.jl
@@ -19,12 +19,8 @@ end
 
 staticmaps_rhine_path = testdata(v"0.1", "staticmaps.nc", "staticmaps-rhine.nc")
 staticmaps_moselle_path =
-    testdata(v"0.2.8", "staticmaps-moselle.nc", "staticmaps-moselle.nc")
-staticmaps_lahn_path = testdata(v"0.2.1", "staticmaps-lahn.nc", "staticmaps-lahn.nc")
-staticmaps_meuse_path =
-    testdata(v"0.2.8", "staticmaps_flex_meuse.nc", "staticmaps_flex_meuse.nc")
+    testdata(v"0.2.9", "staticmaps-moselle.nc", "staticmaps-moselle.nc")
 forcing_moselle_path = testdata(v"0.2.6", "forcing-moselle.nc", "forcing-moselle.nc")
-forcing_lahn_path = testdata(v"0.2", "forcing-lahn.nc", "forcing-lahn.nc")
 forcing_moselle_sed_path =
     testdata(v"0.2.3", "forcing-moselle-sed.nc", "forcing-moselle-sed.nc")
 staticmaps_moselle_sed_path =
@@ -42,7 +38,6 @@ forcing_sbm_gw_path = testdata(
     "forcing-sbm-groundwater-part2.nc",
     "forcing-sbm-groundwater-part2.nc",
 )
-forcing_meuse_path = testdata(v"0.2.8", "forcing_meuse.nc", "forcing_meuse.nc")
 staticmaps_sbm_gw_path =
     testdata(v"0.2.3", "staticmaps-sbm-groundwater.nc", "staticmaps-sbm-groundwater.nc")
 instates_sbm_gw_path =
diff --git a/build/create_binaries/precompile.jl b/build/create_binaries/precompile.jl
index 78ea170d1..984017d8c 100644
--- a/build/create_binaries/precompile.jl
+++ b/build/create_binaries/precompile.jl
@@ -8,5 +8,4 @@ testdir = abspath(dirname(pathof(Wflow)), "..", "test")
 
 Wflow.run(joinpath(testdir, "sbm_config.toml"))
 Wflow.run(joinpath(testdir, "sbm_gwf_config.toml"))
-Wflow.run(joinpath(testdir, "hbv_config.toml"))
 Wflow.run(joinpath(testdir, "sediment_config.toml"))
diff --git a/build/wflow_cli/test/runtests.jl b/build/wflow_cli/test/runtests.jl
index b68f71f6d..aada6ffb5 100644
--- a/build/wflow_cli/test/runtests.jl
+++ b/build/wflow_cli/test/runtests.jl
@@ -2,7 +2,8 @@ using Test
 using Wflow
 
 extension = Sys.iswindows() ? ".exe" : ""
-wflow_exe = normpath(@__DIR__, "../../create_binaries/wflow_bundle/bin/wflow_cli" * extension)
+wflow_exe =
+    normpath(@__DIR__, "../../create_binaries/wflow_bundle/bin/wflow_cli" * extension)
 
 # this assumes that the Wflow tests have already been run, so the data has been downloaded
 testdir = abspath(dirname(pathof(Wflow)), "..", "test")
@@ -14,7 +15,7 @@ outputdir = joinpath(datadir, "output")
 
 @testset "no_config" begin
     # Clean output directory
-    rm(outputdir; force=true, recursive=true)
+    rm(outputdir; force = true, recursive = true)
     @test_throws ProcessFailedException run(`$wflow_exe`)
     # Check if no files are being created
     @test !(isdir(outputdir))
@@ -22,7 +23,7 @@ end
 
 @testset "wflow_sbm" begin
     # Clean directory
-    rm(outputdir; force=true, recursive=true)
+    rm(outputdir; force = true, recursive = true)
     # Run cli with the toml
     toml = normpath(testdir, "sbm_config.toml")
     run(`$wflow_exe $toml`)
@@ -43,7 +44,7 @@ end
 
 @testset "wflow_sbm-gwf" begin
     # Clean directory
-    rm(outputdir; force=true, recursive=true)
+    rm(outputdir; force = true, recursive = true)
     # Run cli with the toml
     toml = normpath(testdir, "sbm_gwf_config.toml")
     run(`$wflow_exe $toml`)
@@ -63,7 +64,7 @@ end
 
 @testset "wflow_sediment" begin
     # Clean directory
-    rm(outputdir; force=true, recursive=true)
+    rm(outputdir; force = true, recursive = true)
     # Run cli with the toml
     toml = normpath(testdir, "sediment_config.toml")
     run(`$wflow_exe $toml`)
@@ -82,11 +83,12 @@ end
 end
 
 @testset "wflow_sbm_timing" begin
-
     toml = normpath(testdir, "sbm_config.toml")
-    time_sbm_1thread = @elapsed run(Cmd(`$wflow_exe $toml`, env=("JULIA_NUM_THREADS" => "1",)))
+    time_sbm_1thread =
+        @elapsed run(Cmd(`$wflow_exe $toml`; env = ("JULIA_NUM_THREADS" => "1",)))
 
-    time_sbm_4thread = @elapsed run(Cmd(`$wflow_exe $toml`, env=("JULIA_NUM_THREADS" => "4", )))
+    time_sbm_4thread =
+        @elapsed run(Cmd(`$wflow_exe $toml`; env = ("JULIA_NUM_THREADS" => "4",)))
 
     # Test if run with more threads is indeed faster
     @test time_sbm_4thread < time_sbm_1thread
diff --git a/docs/changelog.qmd b/docs/changelog.qmd
index d9244485d..4558f18c2 100644
--- a/docs/changelog.qmd
+++ b/docs/changelog.qmd
@@ -7,17 +7,31 @@ All notable changes to this project will be documented in this file.
 The format is based on [Keep a Changelog](https://keepachangelog.com/en/1.0.0/), and this
 project adheres to [Semantic Versioning](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0.html).
 
-## v1.0.0
+## Unreleased
 
 ### Fixed
+- Initialization of `LateralSSF` variables `ssf` and `ssfmax` with vertical hydraulic
+  conductivity profile `exponential_constant`. Removed parameter `khfrac` from the
+  computation, as it is already part of parameter `kh_0`.
 
 ### Changed
 - Removed vertical concepts `HBV` and `FLEXTopo`.
-- Removed metadata macros `exchange`, `grid_type` and `grid_location`. The macro `grid_type`
-  is not required because this functionality is already part of `BMI`. The macros `exchange`
-  and `grid_location` are replaced by functions resulting in cleaner code.
+- Removed metadata macros `exchange` and `grid_type`. The macro `grid_type` is not required
+  because this functionality is already part of `BMI`. The macro `exchange` is replaced by a
+  function used by `BMI`. Remaining metadata macros `get_units` and `grid_loc` are only used
+  by `BMI`.
+- Refactor the vertical `SBM` concept: divide the long struct `SBM` into different model
+  components for interception, snow, glacier, (open water) runoff, soil, water demand and
+  allocation stored in the struct `LandHydrologySBM`. Additionally, the atmospheric forcing
+  and a shared vegetation parameterset are stored as separate fields in struct
+  `LandHydrologySBM` (with soil model `SbmSoilModel`). The model component structs have
+  model `variables`, `parameters` and `boundary_conditions` (if applicable), including
+  associated functions for initializing and updating these model components. The original
+  long update function of the `SBM` soil part has been split into separate functions.
 
 ### Added
+- Support direct output of snow and glacier melt, and add computation of snow water
+  equivalent (SWE).
 
 ## v0.x releases
 
@@ -92,7 +106,10 @@ project adheres to [Semantic Versioning](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0.html).
 - For improved code readability it is now discouraged to use non-ASCII characters for the
   names of variables, structs, functions and macros. Using the non-ASCII character for
   built-in operators is still allowed. This change in naming convention is now in effect and
-  all invalid uses of non-ASCII characters have been replaced by ASCII equivalents.
+  all invalid uses of non-ASCII characters have been replaced by ASCII equivalents. This
+  change also impacts the TOML keys `kv₀`, `θᵣ` and `θₛ`. These keys have been replaced with
+  the ASCII versions `kv_0`, `theta_r` and `theta_s` in v0.4.0 and the old keys are not
+  supported anymore.
 - Docs: 1) improved description of different model configurations in model-setup.md, also in
   relation to hydromt\_wflow in docs, 2) citing info related to wflow\_sbm publication in
   Geosci. Model Dev. (from in review to published).
diff --git a/docs/home/publications.qmd b/docs/home/publications.qmd
index a05714cac..50fc4e36c 100644
--- a/docs/home/publications.qmd
+++ b/docs/home/publications.qmd
@@ -59,6 +59,11 @@ R., Francés, F., Kollet, S., Rigon, R., Weerts, A. & Samaniego, L, 2024. Multi-
 hydrological reference dataset over continental Europe and an African basin. Sci Data, 11,
 1009\. <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03825-9>.
 
+Droppers, B., Rakovec, O., Avila, L., Azimi, S., Cortés-Torres N., De León Pérez, D.,
+Imhoff, R., Francés, F., Kollet, S., Rigon, R., Weerts, A. & Samaniego, L, 2024. Multi-model
+hydrological reference dataset over continental Europe and an African basin. Sci Data, 11,
+1009\. <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03825-9>.
+
 Emerton, R.E., Stephens, E.M., Pappenberger, F., Pagano, T.C., Weerts, A.H., Wood, A.W.,
 Salamon, P., Brown, J.D., Hjerdt, N., Donnelly, C., Baugh, C.A., Cloke, H.L., 2016. Continental
 and global scale flood forecasting systems. WIREs Water 3, 391–418.
@@ -167,6 +172,12 @@ van der Laan, E., P. Hazenberg, A.H. Weerts, 2024. Simulation of long-term stora
 headwater reservoirs across the globe using public cloud computing infrastructure. Science of
 The Total Environment, 172678, <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172678>.
 
+Pranoto, B., Soekarno, H., Hartulistiyoso, E., Nur Aidi, M., Sutrisno, D., Pohan, D.,
+Radhika, Sutejo, B., Heru Kuncoro, A., Nahib, I., 2024. Integrating Flood Early Warning
+System (FEWS) for Optimizing Small Hydropower Sites: A West Java Case Study. EVERGREEN Joint
+Journal of Novel Carbon Resource Sciences & Green Asia Strategy, 11, 3, 2691-2699.
+<https://www.tj.kyushu-u.ac.jp/evergreen/contents/EG2024-11_3_content/pdf/p2691-2699.pdf>
+
 van Osnabrugge, B., Weerts, A.H., Uijlenhoet, R., 2017. genRE: A method to extend gridded
 precipitation climatology data sets in near real-time for hydrological forecasting purposes.
 Water Resources Research, 53. <https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR021201>.
diff --git a/docs/user_guide/toml_file.qmd b/docs/user_guide/toml_file.qmd
index 307ca16fa..d67f46b7a 100644
--- a/docs/user_guide/toml_file.qmd
+++ b/docs/user_guide/toml_file.qmd
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ e_r = "EoverR"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
 kext = "Kext"
-"kv_0" = "KsatVer"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
 leaf_area_index = "LAI"             # Cyclic variable
 m = "M"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
@@ -173,8 +173,8 @@ ttm = "TTM"
 w_soil = "wflow_soil"
 water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
 waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-"theta_r" = "thetaR"
-"theta_s" = "thetaS"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 
 [input.lateral.river]
 length = "wflow_riverlength"
diff --git a/pixi.lock b/pixi.lock
index deaa35ab0..2eb64b424 100644
--- a/pixi.lock
+++ b/pixi.lock
@@ -7,300 +7,44 @@ environments:
       linux-64:
       - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/_libgcc_mutex-0.1-conda_forge.tar.bz2
       - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/_openmp_mutex-4.5-2_gnu.tar.bz2
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/anyio-4.6.2.post1-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/argon2-cffi-23.1.0-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/argon2-cffi-bindings-21.2.0-py313h536fd9c_5.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/arrow-1.3.0-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/asttokens-2.4.1-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/async-lru-2.0.4-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/attrs-24.2.0-pyh71513ae_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/babel-2.14.0-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/beautifulsoup4-4.12.3-pyha770c72_0.conda
-      - conda: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/bleach-6.1.0-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
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-  build: h3b0a872_6
-  build_number: 6
-  subdir: linux-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/zeromq-4.3.5-h3b0a872_6.conda
-  sha256: e67288b1c98a31ee58a5c07bdd873dbe08e75f752e1ad605d5e8c0697339903e
-  md5: 113506c8d2d558e733f5c38f6bf08c50
-  depends:
-  - __glibc >=2.17,<3.0.a0
-  - krb5 >=1.21.3,<1.22.0a0
-  - libgcc >=13
-  - libsodium >=1.0.20,<1.0.21.0a0
-  - libstdcxx >=13
-  license: MPL-2.0
-  license_family: MOZILLA
-  size: 335528
-  timestamp: 1728364029042
-- kind: conda
-  name: zeromq
-  version: 4.3.5
-  build: ha9f60a1_6
-  build_number: 6
-  subdir: win-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/win-64/zeromq-4.3.5-ha9f60a1_6.conda
-  sha256: c37130692742cc43eedf4e23270c7d1634235acff50760025e9583f8b46b64e6
-  md5: 33a78bbc44d6550c361abb058a0556e2
-  depends:
-  - krb5 >=1.21.3,<1.22.0a0
-  - libsodium >=1.0.20,<1.0.21.0a0
-  - ucrt >=10.0.20348.0
-  - vc >=14.2,<15
-  - vc14_runtime >=14.29.30139
-  license: MPL-2.0
-  license_family: MOZILLA
-  size: 2701749
-  timestamp: 1728364260886
-- kind: conda
-  name: zipp
-  version: 3.20.2
-  build: pyhd8ed1ab_0
-  subdir: noarch
-  noarch: python
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/noarch/zipp-3.20.2-pyhd8ed1ab_0.conda
-  sha256: 1e84fcfa41e0afdd87ff41e6fbb719c96a0e098c1f79be342293ab0bd8dea322
-  md5: 4daaed111c05672ae669f7036ee5bba3
-  depends:
-  - python >=3.8
-  license: MIT
-  license_family: MIT
-  size: 21409
-  timestamp: 1726248679175
-- kind: conda
-  name: zstandard
-  version: 0.23.0
-  build: py313h574b89f_1
-  build_number: 1
-  subdir: win-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/win-64/zstandard-0.23.0-py313h574b89f_1.conda
-  sha256: 1d2744ec0e91da267ce749e19142081472539cb140a7dad0646cd249246691fe
-  md5: 8e017aca933f4dd25491151edd3e7820
-  depends:
-  - cffi >=1.11
-  - python >=3.13.0rc1,<3.14.0a0
-  - python_abi 3.13.* *_cp313
-  - ucrt >=10.0.20348.0
-  - vc >=14.2,<15
-  - vc14_runtime >=14.29.30139
-  - zstd >=1.5.6,<1.5.7.0a0
-  - zstd >=1.5.6,<1.6.0a0
-  license: BSD-3-Clause
-  license_family: BSD
-  size: 325703
-  timestamp: 1725305947138
-- kind: conda
-  name: zstandard
-  version: 0.23.0
-  build: py313h80202fe_1
-  build_number: 1
-  subdir: linux-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/zstandard-0.23.0-py313h80202fe_1.conda
-  sha256: ea82f2b8964150a3aa7373b4697e48e64f2200fe68ae554ee85c641c692d1c97
-  md5: c178558ff516cd507763ffee230c20b2
-  depends:
-  - __glibc >=2.17,<3.0.a0
-  - cffi >=1.11
-  - libgcc >=13
-  - python >=3.13.0rc1,<3.14.0a0
-  - python_abi 3.13.* *_cp313
-  - zstd >=1.5.6,<1.5.7.0a0
-  - zstd >=1.5.6,<1.6.0a0
-  license: BSD-3-Clause
-  license_family: BSD
-  size: 424424
-  timestamp: 1725305749031
-- kind: conda
-  name: zstd
-  version: 1.5.6
-  build: h0ea2cb4_0
-  subdir: win-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/win-64/zstd-1.5.6-h0ea2cb4_0.conda
-  sha256: 768e30dc513568491818fb068ee867c57c514b553915536da09e5d10b4ebf3c3
-  md5: 9a17230f95733c04dc40a2b1e5491d74
-  depends:
-  - libzlib >=1.2.13,<2.0.0a0
-  - ucrt >=10.0.20348.0
-  - vc >=14.2,<15
-  - vc14_runtime >=14.29.30139
-  license: BSD-3-Clause
-  license_family: BSD
-  size: 349143
-  timestamp: 1714723445995
-- kind: conda
-  name: zstd
-  version: 1.5.6
-  build: ha6fb4c9_0
-  subdir: linux-64
-  url: https://conda.anaconda.org/conda-forge/linux-64/zstd-1.5.6-ha6fb4c9_0.conda
-  sha256: c558b9cc01d9c1444031bd1ce4b9cff86f9085765f17627a6cd85fc623c8a02b
-  md5: 4d056880988120e29d75bfff282e0f45
-  depends:
-  - libgcc-ng >=12
-  - libstdcxx-ng >=12
-  - libzlib >=1.2.13,<2.0.0a0
-  license: BSD-3-Clause
-  license_family: BSD
-  size: 554846
-  timestamp: 1714722996770
diff --git a/server/src/WflowServer.jl b/server/src/WflowServer.jl
index c96c7731e..65b05ea30 100644
--- a/server/src/WflowServer.jl
+++ b/server/src/WflowServer.jl
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 module WflowServer
-import ZMQ
-import JSON3
-import StructTypes
-import Wflow
+using ZMQ: ZMQ
+using JSON3: JSON3
+using StructTypes: StructTypes
+using Wflow: Wflow
 
 include("bmi_service.jl")
 include("server.jl")
diff --git a/server/src/bmi_service.jl b/server/src/bmi_service.jl
index 3a344179a..4a87d8f1e 100644
--- a/server/src/bmi_service.jl
+++ b/server/src/bmi_service.jl
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ struct SaveState
     fn::String
 end
 
-function wflow_bmi(m::Initialize, model::Union{Wflow.Model,Nothing})
+function wflow_bmi(m::Initialize, model::Union{Wflow.Model, Nothing})
     model = getfield(Wflow.BMI, Symbol(m.fn))(Wflow.Model, m.config_file)
     return model
 end
diff --git a/server/src/server.jl b/server/src/server.jl
index 4e183af90..0ab9f35db 100644
--- a/server/src/server.jl
+++ b/server/src/server.jl
@@ -39,28 +39,28 @@ const map_structs = Dict(
 )
 
 mutable struct ModelHandler
-    model::Union{Wflow.Model,Nothing}
+    model::Union{Wflow.Model, Nothing}
 end
 
 "Shutdown ZMQ server"
 function shutdown(s::ZMQ.Socket, ctx::ZMQ.Context)
     @info "Shutting down Wflow ZMQ server on request..."
     ZMQ.close(s)
-    ZMQ.close(ctx)
+    return ZMQ.close(ctx)
 end
 
 "Error response ZMQ server"
 function response(err::AbstractString, s::ZMQ.Socket)
     @info "Send error response"
-    resp = Dict{String,String}("status" => "ERROR", "error" => err)
-    ZMQ.send(s, JSON3.write(resp))
+    resp = Dict{String, String}("status" => "ERROR", "error" => err)
+    return ZMQ.send(s, JSON3.write(resp))
 end
 
 "Status response ZMQ server"
 function response(s::ZMQ.Socket)
     @info "Send status response"
-    resp = Dict{String,String}("status" => "OK")
-    ZMQ.send(s, JSON3.write(resp))
+    resp = Dict{String, String}("status" => "OK")
+    return ZMQ.send(s, JSON3.write(resp))
 end
 
 "Validate JSON request against mapped Struct"
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ function main(ARGS::Vector{String})
             ),
         )
     end
-    start(port)
+    return start(port)
 end
 
 """
diff --git a/server/test/client.jl b/server/test/client.jl
index 36e6b5dc5..1688af26f 100644
--- a/server/test/client.jl
+++ b/server/test/client.jl
@@ -32,11 +32,11 @@ end
 
 @testset "model information functions" begin
     @test request((fn = "get_component_name",)) == Dict("component_name" => "sbm")
-    @test request((fn = "get_input_item_count",)) == Dict("input_item_count" => 207)
-    @test request((fn = "get_output_item_count",)) == Dict("output_item_count" => 207)
+    @test request((fn = "get_input_item_count",)) == Dict("input_item_count" => 203)
+    @test request((fn = "get_output_item_count",)) == Dict("output_item_count" => 203)
     to_check = [
-        "vertical.nlayers",
-        "vertical.theta_r",
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.nlayers",
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_r",
         "lateral.river.q",
         "lateral.river.reservoir.outflow",
     ]
@@ -52,22 +52,26 @@ vwc_1_size = 0
     @test request((fn = "get_var_itemsize", name = "lateral.subsurface.ssf")) ==
           Dict("var_itemsize" => sizeof(Wflow.Float))
     @test request((fn = "get_var_type", name = "vertical.n"))["status"] == "ERROR"
-    @test request((fn = "get_var_units", name = "vertical.theta_s")) == Dict("var_units" => "-")
+    @test request((fn = "get_var_units", name = "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s")) ==
+          Dict("var_units" => "-")
     @test request((fn = "get_var_location", name = "lateral.river.q")) ==
           Dict("var_location" => "node")
-    zi_nbytes = request((fn = "get_var_nbytes", name = "vertical.zi"))["var_nbytes"]
+    zi_nbytes =
+        request((fn = "get_var_nbytes", name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi"))["var_nbytes"]
     @test zi_nbytes == 400504
-    zi_itemsize = request((fn = "get_var_itemsize", name = "vertical.zi"))["var_itemsize"]
+    zi_itemsize =
+        request((fn = "get_var_itemsize", name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi"))["var_itemsize"]
     zi_size = Int(zi_nbytes / zi_itemsize)
-    vwc_1_nbytes = request((fn = "get_var_nbytes", name = "vertical.vwc[1]"))["var_nbytes"]
+    vwc_1_nbytes =
+        request((fn = "get_var_nbytes", name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]"))["var_nbytes"]
     @test vwc_1_nbytes == 400504
     vwc_1_itemsize =
-        request((fn = "get_var_itemsize", name = "vertical.vwc[1]"))["var_itemsize"]
+        request((fn = "get_var_itemsize", name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]"))["var_itemsize"]
     vwc_1_size = Int(vwc_1_nbytes / vwc_1_itemsize)
     @test request((fn = "get_var_grid", name = "lateral.river.h")) == Dict("var_grid" => 3)
-    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.zi", dest = fill(0.0, zi_size))
+    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi", dest = fill(0.0, zi_size))
     @test mean(request(msg)["value"]) ≈ 277.3620724821974
-    msg = (fn = "get_value_ptr", name = "vertical.theta_s")
+    msg = (fn = "get_value_ptr", name = "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s")
     @test mean(request(msg)["value_ptr"]) ≈ 0.4409211971535584
     msg = (
         fn = "get_value_at_indices",
@@ -77,55 +81,68 @@ vwc_1_size = 0
     )
     @test request(msg)["value_at_indices"] ≈
           [2.198747900215207f0, 2.6880427720508515f0, 3.4848783702629564f0]
-    msg = (fn = "set_value", name = "vertical.zi", src = fill(300.0, zi_size))
+    msg =
+        (fn = "set_value", name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi", src = fill(300.0, zi_size))
     @test request(msg) == Dict("status" => "OK")
-    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.zi", dest = fill(0.0, zi_size))
+    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi", dest = fill(0.0, zi_size))
     @test mean(request(msg)["value"]) == 300.0
     msg = (
         fn = "set_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.zi",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi",
         src = [250.0, 350.0],
         inds = [1, 2],
     )
     @test request(msg) == Dict("status" => "OK")
     msg = (
         fn = "get_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.zi",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.zi",
         dest = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
         inds = [1, 2, 3],
     )
     @test request(msg)["value_at_indices"] == [250.0, 350.0, 300.0]
-    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.vwc[1]", dest = fill(0.0, vwc_1_size))
+    msg = (
+        fn = "get_value",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
+        dest = fill(0.0, vwc_1_size),
+    )
     @test mean(request(msg)["value"]) ≈ 0.18600013563085036f0
     msg = (
         fn = "get_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.vwc[1]",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
         dest = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
         inds = [1, 2, 3],
     )
     @test request(msg)["value_at_indices"] ≈
           [0.12089607119560242f0, 0.11968416924304527f0, 0.14602328618707333f0]
-    msg = (fn = "set_value", name = "vertical.vwc[1]", src = fill(0.3, vwc_1_size))
+    msg = (
+        fn = "set_value",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
+        src = fill(0.3, vwc_1_size),
+    )
     @test request(msg) == Dict("status" => "OK")
-    msg = (fn = "get_value", name = "vertical.vwc[1]", dest = fill(0.0, vwc_1_size))
+    msg = (
+        fn = "get_value",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
+        dest = fill(0.0, vwc_1_size),
+    )
     @test mean(request(msg)["value"]) ≈ 0.3f0
     msg = (
         fn = "get_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.vwc[1]",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
         dest = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
         inds = [1, 2, 3],
     )
     @test request(msg)["value_at_indices"] == [0.3, 0.3, 0.3]
     msg = (
         fn = "set_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.vwc[1]",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
         src = [0.1, 0.25],
         inds = [1, 2],
     )
     @test request(msg) == Dict("status" => "OK")
     msg = (
         fn = "get_value_at_indices",
-        name = "vertical.vwc[1]",
+        name = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
         dest = [0.0, 0.0],
         inds = [1, 2],
     )
diff --git a/server/test/runtests.jl b/server/test/runtests.jl
index 8d016a2b6..bb37c0a4f 100644
--- a/server/test/runtests.jl
+++ b/server/test/runtests.jl
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
-import ZMQ
-import JSON3
-import StructTypes
-import Wflow
-import WflowServer
+using ZMQ: ZMQ
+using JSON3: JSON3
+using StructTypes: StructTypes
+using Wflow: Wflow
+using WflowServer: WflowServer
 import Statistics: mean
 import Logging: with_logger, NullLogger
 import Test: @testset, @test
-import Downloads
+using Downloads: Downloads
 
 # ensure test data is present
 testdir = @__DIR__
diff --git a/server/test/sbm_config.toml b/server/test/sbm_config.toml
index 3ab5c92d0..39898a488 100644
--- a/server/test/sbm_config.toml
+++ b/server/test/sbm_config.toml
@@ -19,14 +19,18 @@ path_output = "outstates-moselle.nc"
 # if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
 # if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
 
-[state.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [state.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 h_av = "h_av_river"
@@ -56,42 +60,52 @@ subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index"]
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
-[input.vertical.kv_0]
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters.kv_0]
 netcdf.variable.name = "KsatVer"
 scale = 1.0
 offset = 0.0
@@ -135,14 +149,18 @@ min_streamorder_land = 5
 [output]
 path = "output_moselle.nc"
 
-[output.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[output.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[output.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [output.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 q = "q_river"
@@ -170,14 +188,14 @@ coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 name = "temp_coord"
 location = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[netcdf.variable]]
 location = "temp_byindex"
 name = "temp_index"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [csv]
 path = "output_moselle.csv"
@@ -196,20 +214,20 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.reservoir.volume"
 coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 header = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 header = "vwc_layer2_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.vwc"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc"
 layer = 2
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "temp_byindex"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "Q"
@@ -219,12 +237,24 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.q"
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "recharge"
 map = "subcatchment"
-parameter = "vertical.recharge"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.recharge"
 reducer = "mean"
 
 [API]
 components = [
-  "vertical",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing",
+  "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set",
+  "vertical.runoff.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.runoff.variables",
+  "vertical.runoff.parameters",
+  "vertical.soil.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.soil.variables",
+  "vertical.soil.parameters",
+  "vertical.interception.variables",
+  "vertical.interception.parameters",
+  "vertical.snow.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.snow.variables",
+  "vertical.snow.parameters",
   "lateral.subsurface",
   "lateral.land",
   "lateral.river",
diff --git a/src/Wflow.jl b/src/Wflow.jl
index f4f898e0d..233a96fe0 100644
--- a/src/Wflow.jl
+++ b/src/Wflow.jl
@@ -4,11 +4,43 @@ import BasicModelInterface as BMI
 
 using Base.Threads: nthreads
 using CFTime: CFTime, monthday, dayofyear
-using Dates: Dates, Second, Minute, Hour, Day, Month, year, TimeType, DatePeriod, TimePeriod, Date, DateTime, now, isleapyear, datetime2unix
+using Dates:
+    Dates,
+    Second,
+    Minute,
+    Hour,
+    Day,
+    Month,
+    year,
+    TimeType,
+    DatePeriod,
+    TimePeriod,
+    Date,
+    DateTime,
+    now,
+    isleapyear,
+    datetime2unix,
+    canonicalize
 using DelimitedFiles: readdlm
 using FieldMetadata: @metadata
 using Glob: glob
-using Graphs: Graphs, Graph, DiGraph, add_edge!, is_cyclic, inneighbors, outneighbors, edges, topological_sort_by_dfs, src, dst, vertices, nv, ne, induced_subgraph, add_vertex!
+using Graphs:
+    Graphs,
+    Graph,
+    DiGraph,
+    add_edge!,
+    is_cyclic,
+    inneighbors,
+    outneighbors,
+    edges,
+    topological_sort_by_dfs,
+    src,
+    dst,
+    vertices,
+    nv,
+    ne,
+    induced_subgraph,
+    add_vertex!
 using IfElse: IfElse
 using LoggingExtras
 using LoopVectorization: @tturbo
@@ -21,15 +53,13 @@ using Statistics: mean, median, quantile!
 using TerminalLoggers
 using TOML: TOML
 
+# metadata is used in combination with BMI functions `get_var_units` and `get_var_location`
 @metadata get_units "mm dt-1" String
-# metadata for BMI grid
-@metadata exchange 1 Integer
-@metadata grid_type "unstructured" String
-@metadata grid_location "node" String
+@metadata grid_loc "node" String # BMI grid location
 
 const Float = Float64
-const CFDataset = Union{NCDataset,NCDatasets.MFDataset}
-const CFVariable_MF = Union{NCDatasets.CFVariable,NCDatasets.MFCFVariable}
+const CFDataset = Union{NCDataset, NCDatasets.MFDataset}
+const CFVariable_MF = Union{NCDatasets.CFVariable, NCDatasets.MFCFVariable}
 const version =
     VersionNumber(TOML.parsefile(joinpath(@__DIR__, "..", "Project.toml"))["version"])
 
@@ -45,7 +75,7 @@ function Clock(config)
     calendar = get(config, "calendar", "standard")::String
     starttime = cftime(config.starttime, calendar)
     dt = Second(config.timestepsecs)
-    Clock(starttime, 0, dt)
+    return Clock(starttime, 0, dt)
 end
 
 function Clock(config, reader)
@@ -79,7 +109,7 @@ function Clock(config, reader)
     end
     starttime = cftime(config.starttime, calendar)
 
-    Clock(starttime, 0, dt)
+    return Clock(starttime, 0, dt)
 end
 
 include("io.jl")
@@ -90,7 +120,7 @@ include("io.jl")
 Composite type that represents all different aspects of a Wflow Model, such as the
 network, parameters, clock, configuration and input and output.
 """
-struct Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}
+struct Model{N, L, V, R, W, T}
     config::Config  # all configuration options
     network::N  # connectivity information, directed graph
     lateral::L  # lateral model that holds lateral state, moves along network
@@ -104,26 +134,30 @@ end
 # different model types (used for dispatch)
 struct SbmModel end         # "sbm" type / sbm_model.jl
 struct SbmGwfModel end      # "sbm_gwf" type / sbm_gwf_model.jl
-struct HbvModel end         # "hbv" type / hbv_model.jl
-struct FlextopoModel end    # "flextopo" type / flextopo_model.jl
 struct SedimentModel end    # "sediment" type / sediment_model.jl
 
 # prevent a large printout of model components and arrays
 Base.show(io::IO, m::Model) = print(io, "model of type ", typeof(m))
 
-include("horizontal_process.jl")
+include("forcing.jl")
+include("parameters.jl")
 include("flow.jl")
-include("hbv.jl")
-include("water_demand.jl")
+include("horizontal_process.jl")
+include("vegetation/rainfall_interception.jl")
+include("vegetation/canopy.jl")
+include("snow/snow_process.jl")
+include("snow/snow.jl")
+include("glacier/glacier_process.jl")
+include("glacier/glacier.jl")
+include("surfacewater/runoff.jl")
+include("soil/soil.jl")
+include("soil/soil_process.jl")
 include("sbm.jl")
-include("flextopo.jl")
+include("demand/water_demand.jl")
 include("sediment.jl")
 include("reservoir_lake.jl")
-include("hbv_model.jl")
 include("sbm_model.jl")
-include("flextopo_model.jl")
 include("sediment_model.jl")
-include("vertical_process.jl")
 include("groundwater/connectivity.jl")
 include("groundwater/aquifer.jl")
 include("groundwater/boundary_conditions.jl")
@@ -137,7 +171,7 @@ include("states.jl")
 """
     run(tomlpath::AbstractString; silent=false)
     run(config::Config)
-    run(model::Model)
+    run!(model::Model)
     run()
 
 Run an entire simulation starting either from a path to a TOML settings file,
@@ -178,6 +212,7 @@ function run(tomlpath::AbstractString; silent = nothing)
             close(logfile)
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function run(config::Config)
@@ -187,30 +222,27 @@ function run(config::Config)
         initialize_sbm_model(config)
     elseif modeltype == "sbm_gwf"
         initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
-    elseif modeltype == "hbv"
-        initialize_hbv_model(config)
     elseif modeltype == "sediment"
         initialize_sediment_model(config)
-    elseif modeltype == "flextopo"
-        initialize_flextopo_model(config)
     else
         error("unknown model type")
     end
-    load_fixed_forcing(model)
-    run(model)
+    load_fixed_forcing!(model)
+    run!(model)
+    return model
 end
 
-function run_timestep(model::Model; update_func = update, write_model_output = true)
+function run_timestep!(model::Model; update_func = update!, write_model_output = true)
     advance!(model.clock)
     load_dynamic_input!(model)
-    model = update_func(model)
+    update_func(model)
     if write_model_output
         write_output(model)
     end
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function run(model::Model; close_files = true)
+function run!(model::Model; close_files = true)
     (; config, writer, clock) = model
 
     model_type = config.model.type::String
@@ -225,13 +257,13 @@ function run(model::Model; close_files = true)
     starttime = clock.time
     dt = clock.dt
     endtime = cftime(config.endtime, calendar)
-    times = range(starttime + dt, endtime, step = dt)
+    times = range(starttime + dt, endtime; step = dt)
 
     @info "Run information" model_type starttime dt endtime nthreads()
     runstart_time = now()
     @progress for (i, time) in enumerate(times)
         @debug "Starting timestep." time i now()
-        model = run_timestep(model)
+        run_timestep!(model)
     end
     @info "Simulation duration: $(canonicalize(now() - runstart_time))"
 
@@ -246,7 +278,7 @@ function run(model::Model; close_files = true)
     # option to support running function twice without re-initializing
     # and thus opening the netCDF files
     if close_files
-        Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+        Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
     end
 
     # copy TOML to dir_output, to archive what settings were used
@@ -255,10 +287,10 @@ function run(model::Model; close_files = true)
         dst = output_path(config, basename(src))
         if src != dst
             @debug "Copying TOML file." src dst
-            cp(src, dst, force = true)
+            cp(src, dst; force = true)
         end
     end
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function run()
@@ -271,7 +303,7 @@ function run()
     if !isfile(toml_path)
         throw(ArgumentError("File not found: $(toml_path)\n" * usage))
     end
-    run(toml_path)
+    return run(toml_path)
 end
 
 end # module
diff --git a/src/bmi.jl b/src/bmi.jl
index 68093f03a..5d543cac9 100644
--- a/src/bmi.jl
+++ b/src/bmi.jl
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 # Mapping of grid identifier to a key, to get the active indices of the model domain.
 # See also function active_indices(network, key::Tuple).
-const grids = Dict{Int,Tuple{Symbol}}(
+const grids = Dict{Int, Tuple{Symbol}}(
     0 => (:reservoir,),
     1 => (:lake,),
     2 => (:drain,),
@@ -27,16 +27,12 @@ function BMI.initialize(::Type{<:Model}, config_file)
         initialize_sbm_model(config)
     elseif modeltype == "sbm_gwf"
         initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
-    elseif modeltype == "hbv"
-        initialize_hbv_model(config)
     elseif modeltype == "sediment"
         initialize_sediment_model(config)
-    elseif modeltype == "flextopo"
-        initialize_flextopo_model(config)
     else
         error("unknown model type")
     end
-    load_fixed_forcing(model)
+    load_fixed_forcing!(model)
     return model
 end
 
@@ -49,15 +45,15 @@ Update the model for a single timestep.
 """
 function BMI.update(model::Model; run = nothing)
     if isnothing(run)
-        model = run_timestep(model)
+        run_timestep!(model)
     elseif run == "sbm_until_recharge"
-        model = run_timestep(
-            model,
-            update_func = update_until_recharge,
+        run_timestep!(
+            model;
+            update_func = update_until_recharge!,
             write_model_output = false,
         )
     elseif run == "sbm_after_subsurfaceflow"
-        model = run_timestep(model, update_func = update_after_subsurfaceflow)
+        run_timestep!(model; update_func = update_after_subsurfaceflow!)
     end
     return model
 end
@@ -75,8 +71,8 @@ function BMI.update_until(model::Model, time::Float64)
         )
         error(error_message)
     end
-    for _ = 1:steps
-        model = run_timestep(model)
+    for _ in 1:steps
+        run_timestep!(model)
     end
     return model
 end
@@ -89,7 +85,7 @@ function BMI.finalize(model::Model)
         write_netcdf_timestep(model, writer.state_dataset, writer.state_parameters)
     end
     reset_clock!(model.clock, config)
-    close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+    return close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 end
 
 function BMI.get_component_name(model::Model)
@@ -97,11 +93,11 @@ function BMI.get_component_name(model::Model)
 end
 
 function BMI.get_input_item_count(model::Model)
-    length(BMI.get_input_var_names(model))
+    return length(BMI.get_input_var_names(model))
 end
 
 function BMI.get_output_item_count(model::Model)
-    length(BMI.get_output_var_names(model))
+    return length(BMI.get_output_var_names(model))
 end
 
 """
@@ -117,22 +113,25 @@ function BMI.get_input_var_names(model::Model)
         var_names = Vector{String}()
         for c in config.API.components
             type = typeof(param(model, c))
-            inds = findall(x -> x != 0, exchange(type))
-            field_names = fieldnames(type)[inds]
+            field_names = fieldnames(type)
 
             for name in field_names
                 var = string(c, ".", name)
-                model_var = param(model, var)
-                if eltype(model_var) <: SVector
-                    for i = 1:length(first(model_var))
-                        push!(var_names, string(var, "[", i, "]"))
-                    end
-                elseif ndims(model_var) > 1
-                    for i = 1:length(first(model_var))
-                        push!(var_names, string(var, "[", i, "]"))
+                if exchange(param(model, var))
+                    model_var = param(model, var)
+                    if eltype(model_var) <: SVector
+                        for i in 1:length(first(model_var))
+                            push!(var_names, string(var, "[", i, "]"))
+                        end
+                    elseif ndims(model_var) > 1
+                        for i in 1:length(first(model_var))
+                            push!(var_names, string(var, "[", i, "]"))
+                        end
+                    else
+                        push!(var_names, var)
                     end
                 else
-                    push!(var_names, var)
+                    @warn("$var is not listed as variable for BMI exchange")
                 end
             end
         end
@@ -146,15 +145,14 @@ end
 "Returns input variables from `BMI.get_input_var_names(model::Model)`, there is no
 distinction between input - and output variables."
 function BMI.get_output_var_names(model::Model)
-    BMI.get_input_var_names(model)
+    return BMI.get_input_var_names(model)
 end
 
 function BMI.get_var_grid(model::Model, name::String)
     s = split(name, "[")
     key = symbols(first(s))
-    if exchange(param(model, key[1:end-1]), key[end]) == 1
-        gridtype = grid_type(param(model, key))
-        type = typeof(param(model, key[1:end-1]))
+    if exchange(param(model, key))
+        type = typeof(param(model, key[1:(end - 1)]))
         return if :reservoir in key
             0
         elseif :lake in key
@@ -177,13 +175,13 @@ end
 
 function BMI.get_var_type(model::Model, name::String)
     value = BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name)
-    repr(eltype(first(value)))
+    return repr(eltype(first(value)))
 end
 
 function BMI.get_var_units(model::Model, name::String)
     key = symbols(first(split(name, "[")))
-    if exchange(param(model, key[1:end-1]), key[end]) == 1
-        get_units(param(model, key[1:end-1]), key[end])
+    if exchange(param(model, key))
+        get_units(param(model, key[1:(end - 1)]), key[end])
     else
         error("$name not listed as variable for BMI exchange")
     end
@@ -191,17 +189,17 @@ end
 
 function BMI.get_var_itemsize(model::Model, name::String)
     value = BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name)
-    sizeof(eltype(first(value)))
+    return sizeof(eltype(first(value)))
 end
 
 function BMI.get_var_nbytes(model::Model, name::String)
-    sizeof(BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name))
+    return sizeof(BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name))
 end
 
 function BMI.get_var_location(model::Model, name::String)
     key = symbols(first(split(name, "[")))
-    if exchange(param(model, key[1:end-1]), key[end]) == 1
-        return grid_location(model, key)
+    if exchange(param(model, key))
+        return grid_loc(param(model, key[1:(end - 1)]), key[end])
     else
         error("$name not listed as variable for BMI exchange")
     end
@@ -215,7 +213,7 @@ function BMI.get_current_time(model::Model)
 end
 
 function BMI.get_start_time(model::Model)
-    0.0
+    return 0.0
 end
 
 function BMI.get_end_time(model::Model)
@@ -227,14 +225,18 @@ function BMI.get_end_time(model::Model)
 end
 
 function BMI.get_time_units(model::Model)
-    "s"
+    return "s"
 end
 
 function BMI.get_time_step(model::Model)
-    Float64(model.config.timestepsecs)
+    return Float64(model.config.timestepsecs)
 end
 
-function BMI.get_value(model::Model, name::String, dest::Vector{T}) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
+function BMI.get_value(
+    model::Model,
+    name::String,
+    dest::Vector{T},
+) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
     dest .= copy(BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name))
     return dest
 end
@@ -243,7 +245,7 @@ function BMI.get_value_ptr(model::Model, name::String)
     (; network) = model
     s = split(name, "[")
     key = symbols(first(s))
-    if exchange(param(model, key[1:end-1]), key[end]) == 1
+    if exchange(param(model, key))
         n = length(active_indices(network, key))
         if occursin("[", name)
             ind = tryparse(Int, split(s[end], "]")[1])
@@ -270,7 +272,7 @@ function BMI.get_value_at_indices(
     name::String,
     dest::Vector{T},
     inds::Vector{Int},
-) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
+) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
     dest .= BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name)[inds]
     return dest
 end
@@ -281,8 +283,12 @@ end
 Set a model variable `name` to the values in vector `src`, overwriting the current contents.
 The type and size of `src` must match the model's internal array.
 """
-function BMI.set_value(model::Model, name::String, src::Vector{T}) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
-    BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name) .= src
+function BMI.set_value(
+    model::Model,
+    name::String,
+    src::Vector{T},
+) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
+    return BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name) .= src
 end
 
 """
@@ -296,8 +302,8 @@ function BMI.set_value_at_indices(
     name::String,
     inds::Vector{Int},
     src::Vector{T},
-) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
-    BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name)[inds] .= src
+) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
+    return BMI.get_value_ptr(model, name)[inds] .= src
 end
 
 function BMI.get_grid_type(model::Model, grid::Int)
@@ -318,7 +324,7 @@ function BMI.get_grid_rank(model::Model, grid::Int)
     end
 end
 
-function BMI.get_grid_x(model::Model, grid::Int, x::Vector{T}) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
+function BMI.get_grid_x(model::Model, grid::Int, x::Vector{T}) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
     (; reader, network) = model
     (; dataset) = reader
     sel = active_indices(network, grids[grid])
@@ -328,7 +334,7 @@ function BMI.get_grid_x(model::Model, grid::Int, x::Vector{T}) where {T<:Abstrac
     return x
 end
 
-function BMI.get_grid_y(model::Model, grid::Int, y::Vector{T}) where {T<:AbstractFloat}
+function BMI.get_grid_y(model::Model, grid::Int, y::Vector{T}) where {T <: AbstractFloat}
     (; reader, network) = model
     (; dataset) = reader
     sel = active_indices(network, grids[grid])
@@ -368,21 +374,21 @@ function BMI.get_grid_edge_nodes(model::Model, grid::Int, edge_nodes::Vector{Int
     # inactive nodes (boundary/ghost points) are set at -999
     if grid == 3
         nodes_at_edge = adjacent_nodes_at_link(network.river.graph)
-        nodes_at_edge.dst[nodes_at_edge.dst.==m+1] .= -999
-        edge_nodes[range(1, n, step = 2)] = nodes_at_edge.src
-        edge_nodes[range(2, n, step = 2)] = nodes_at_edge.dst
+        nodes_at_edge.dst[nodes_at_edge.dst .== m + 1] .= -999
+        edge_nodes[range(1, n; step = 2)] = nodes_at_edge.src
+        edge_nodes[range(2, n; step = 2)] = nodes_at_edge.dst
         return edge_nodes
     elseif grid == 4
         xu = network.land.staggered_indices.xu
-        edge_nodes[range(1, n, step = 2)] = 1:m
-        xu[xu.==m+1] .= -999
-        edge_nodes[range(2, n, step = 2)] = xu
+        edge_nodes[range(1, n; step = 2)] = 1:m
+        xu[xu .== m + 1] .= -999
+        edge_nodes[range(2, n; step = 2)] = xu
         return edge_nodes
     elseif grid == 5
         yu = network.land.staggered_indices.yu
-        edge_nodes[range(1, n, step = 2)] = 1:m
-        yu[yu.==m+1] .= -999
-        edge_nodes[range(2, n, step = 2)] = yu
+        edge_nodes[range(1, n; step = 2)] = 1:m
+        yu[yu .== m + 1] .= -999
+        edge_nodes[range(2, n; step = 2)] = yu
         return edge_nodes
     elseif grid in 0:2 || grid == 6
         @warn("edges are not provided for grid type $grid (variables are located at nodes)")
@@ -394,7 +400,7 @@ end
 # Extension of BMI functions (state handling and start time), required for OpenDA coupling.
 # May also be useful for other external software packages.
 function load_state(model::Model)
-    model = set_states(model)
+    set_states!(model)
     return model
 end
 
@@ -404,9 +410,12 @@ function save_state(model::Model)
         @info "Write output states to netCDF file `$(model.writer.state_nc_path)`."
     end
     write_netcdf_timestep(model, writer.state_dataset, writer.state_parameters)
-    close(writer.state_dataset)
+    return close(writer.state_dataset)
 end
 
 function get_start_unix_time(model::Model)
-    datetime2unix(DateTime(model.config.starttime))
+    return datetime2unix(DateTime(model.config.starttime))
 end
+
+exchange(t::Vector) = true
+exchange(t) = false
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/demand/water_demand.jl b/src/demand/water_demand.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ed3e7c77c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/demand/water_demand.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,934 @@
+abstract type AbstractIrrigationModel{T} end
+abstract type AbstractAllocationModel{T} end
+abstract type AbstractDemandModel end
+
+struct NoIrrigationPaddy{T} <: AbstractIrrigationModel{T} end
+struct NoIrrigationNonPaddy{T} <: AbstractIrrigationModel{T} end
+struct NoNonIrrigationDemand <: AbstractDemandModel end
+struct NoAllocationLand{T} <: AbstractAllocationModel{T} end
+
+"Struct to store non-irrigation water demand variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct NonIrrigationDemandVariables{T}
+    returnflow::Vector{T}                   # return flow [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    returnflow_fraction::Vector{T} | "-"    # return flow fraction [-]
+end
+
+"Struct to store prescribed water demand variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct PrescibedDemand{T}
+    demand_gross::Vector{T}     # gross water demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    demand_net::Vector{T}       # net water demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+end
+
+"Non-irrigation water demand model"
+@with_kw struct NonIrrigationDemand{T} <: AbstractDemandModel
+    demand::PrescibedDemand{T}
+    variables::NonIrrigationDemandVariables{T}
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_demand_gross(model::NonIrrigationDemand) = model.demand.demand_gross
+get_demand_gross(model::NoNonIrrigationDemand) = 0.0
+
+"Initialize non-irrigation water demand model for a water use `sector`"
+function NonIrrigationDemand(nc, config, inds, dt, sector)
+    demand_gross =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.demand.$(sector).demand_gross";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    demand_net =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.demand.$(sector).demand_net";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    n = length(inds)
+    returnflow_f = return_flow_fraction.(demand_gross, demand_net)
+
+    demand = PrescibedDemand{Float}(; demand_gross, demand_net)
+    vars = NonIrrigationDemandVariables{Float}(;
+        returnflow_fraction = returnflow_f,
+        returnflow = fill(Float(0), n),
+    )
+    non_irrigation_demand = NonIrrigationDemand{Float}(; demand, variables = vars)
+
+    return non_irrigation_demand
+end
+
+"Struct to store non-paddy irrigation model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct NonPaddyVariables{T}
+    demand_gross::Vector{T}     # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹] 
+end
+
+"Struct to store non-paddy irrigation model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct NonPaddyParameters{T}
+    irrigation_efficiency::Vector{T} | "-"      # irrigation efficiency [-]
+    maximum_irrigation_rate::Vector{T}          # maximum irrigation rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    irrigation_areas::Vector{Bool} | "-"        # irrigation areas [-]
+    irrigation_trigger::Vector{Bool} | "-"      # irrigation on or off [-]end
+end
+
+"Non-paddy (other crops than flooded rice) irrigation model"
+@with_kw struct NonPaddy{T} <: AbstractIrrigationModel{T}
+    parameters::NonPaddyParameters{T}
+    variables::NonPaddyVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize non-paddy irrigation model"
+function NonPaddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    efficiency = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_efficiency";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    areas = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_areas";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1,
+        optional = false,
+        type = Int,
+    )
+    irrigation_trigger = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1,
+        optional = false,
+        type = Bool,
+    )
+    max_irri_rate =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.maximum_irrigation_rate";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 25.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+
+    params = NonPaddyParameters{Float}(;
+        maximum_irrigation_rate = max_irri_rate,
+        irrigation_efficiency = efficiency,
+        irrigation_areas = areas,
+        irrigation_trigger,
+    )
+    vars = NonPaddyVariables{Float}(; demand_gross = fill(mv, length(inds)))
+
+    nonpaddy = NonPaddy{Float}(; variables = vars, parameters = params)
+
+    return nonpaddy
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_demand_gross(model::NonPaddy) = model.variables.demand_gross
+get_demand_gross(model::NoIrrigationNonPaddy) = 0.0
+
+"""
+    update_demand_gross!(nonpaddy::NonPaddy, soil::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update gross water demand `demand_gross` of the non-paddy irrigation model for a single
+timestep.
+
+The gross water demand is based on irrigation that is applied when the `irrigation_trigger`
+is `true` (`on`) and when water depletion exceeds the readily available water in the root
+zone of the SBM soil model. Irrigation brings the root zone back to field capacity, limited
+by the infiltration capacity, taking into account limited irrigation efficiency and limited
+by a maximum irrigation rate.
+"""
+function update_demand_gross!(nonpaddy::NonPaddy, soil::SbmSoilModel)
+    (; hb, theta_s, theta_r, c, sumlayers, act_thickl, pathfrac, infiltcapsoil) =
+        soil.parameters
+    (; h3, n_unsatlayers, zi, ustorelayerdepth, f_infiltration_reduction) = soil.variables
+    (;
+        irrigation_areas,
+        irrigation_trigger,
+        maximum_irrigation_rate,
+        irrigation_efficiency,
+    ) = nonpaddy.parameters
+    rootingdepth = get_rootingdepth(soil)
+
+    for i in eachindex(irrigation_areas)
+        if irrigation_areas[i] && irrigation_trigger[i]
+            usl = set_layerthickness(zi[i], sumlayers[i], act_thickl[i])
+            irri_dem_gross = 0.0
+            for k in 1:n_unsatlayers[i]
+                # compute water demand only for root zone through root fraction per layer
+                rootfrac = min(1.0, (max(0.0, rootingdepth[i] - sumlayers[i][k]) / usl[k]))
+                # vwc_f and vwc_h3 can be precalculated.
+                vwc_fc = vwc_brooks_corey(-100.0, hb[i], theta_s[i], theta_r[i], c[i][k])
+                vwc_h3 = vwc_brooks_corey(h3[i], hb[i], theta_s[i], theta_r[i], c[i][k])
+                depletion =
+                    (vwc_fc * usl[k]) - (ustorelayerdepth[i][k] + theta_r[i] * usl[k])
+                depletion *= rootfrac
+                raw = (vwc_fc - vwc_h3) * usl[k] # readily available water
+                raw *= rootfrac
+
+                # check if maximum irrigation rate has been applied at the previous time step.
+                max_irri_rate_applied =
+                    nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[i] == maximum_irrigation_rate[i]
+                if depletion >= raw # start irrigation
+                    irri_dem_gross += depletion
+                    # add depletion to irrigation gross demand when the maximum irrigation rate has been 
+                    # applied at the previous time step (to get volumetric water content at field capacity)
+                elseif depletion > 0.0 && max_irri_rate_applied # continue irrigation
+                    irri_dem_gross += depletion
+                end
+            end
+            # limit irrigation demand to infiltration capacity 
+            infiltration_capacity =
+                f_infiltration_reduction[i] * (1.0 - pathfrac[i]) * infiltcapsoil[i]
+            irri_dem_gross = min(irri_dem_gross, infiltration_capacity)
+            irri_dem_gross /= irrigation_efficiency[i]
+            # limit irrigation demand to the maximum irrigation rate
+            irri_dem_gross = min(irri_dem_gross, maximum_irrigation_rate[i])
+        else
+            irri_dem_gross = 0.0
+        end
+        nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[i] = irri_dem_gross
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+update_demand_gross!(nonpaddy::NoIrrigationNonPaddy, soil::SbmSoilModel) = nothing
+
+"Struct to store paddy irrigation model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct PaddyVariables{T}
+    demand_gross::Vector{T}     # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    h::Vector{T} | "mm"         # actual water depth in rice field [mm]
+    evaporation::Vector{T}      # evaporation rate [mm Δt⁻¹] 
+end
+
+"Struct to store paddy irrigation model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct PaddyParameters{T}
+    irrigation_efficiency::Vector{T} | "-"      # irrigation efficiency [-]
+    maximum_irrigation_rate::Vector{T}          # maximum irrigation rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    irrigation_areas::Vector{Bool} | "-"        # irrigation areas [-]
+    irrigation_trigger::Vector{Bool} | "-"      # irrigation on or off [-]
+    h_min::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # minimum required water depth in the irrigated rice field [mm]
+    h_opt::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # optimal water depth in the irrigated rice fields [mm]
+    h_max::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # water depth when rice field starts spilling water (overflow) [mm]
+end
+
+"Paddy (flooded rice) irrigation model"
+@with_kw struct Paddy{T} <: AbstractIrrigationModel{T}
+    parameters::PaddyParameters{T}
+    variables::PaddyVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize paddy irrigation model"
+function Paddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    h_min = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.h_min";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 20.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h_opt = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.h_opt";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 50.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h_max = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.h_max";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 80.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    efficiency = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.irrigation_efficiency";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    areas = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.irrigation_areas";
+        sel = inds,
+        optional = false,
+        type = Bool,
+    )
+    irrigation_trigger = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger";
+        sel = inds,
+        optional = false,
+        type = Bool,
+    )
+    max_irri_rate =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.maximum_irrigation_rate";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 25.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    n = length(inds)
+    params = PaddyParameters{Float}(;
+        irrigation_efficiency = efficiency,
+        maximum_irrigation_rate = max_irri_rate,
+        irrigation_trigger,
+        h_min,
+        h_max,
+        h_opt,
+        irrigation_areas = areas,
+    )
+    vars = PaddyVariables{Float}(;
+        demand_gross = fill(mv, n),
+        h = fill(0.0, n),
+        evaporation = fill(0.0, n),
+    )
+    paddy = Paddy{Float}(; parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return paddy
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_water_depth(model::Paddy) = model.variables.h
+get_water_depth(model::NoIrrigationPaddy) = 0.0
+get_demand_gross(model::Paddy) = model.variables.demand_gross
+get_demand_gross(model::NoIrrigationPaddy) = 0.0
+
+"""
+    evaporation!(model::Paddy, potential_evaporation)
+
+Update `evaporation` and the water depth `h` of the paddy irrigation model for a single
+timestep.
+"""
+function evaporation!(model::Paddy, potential_evaporation)
+    for i in eachindex(potential_evaporation)
+        if model.parameters.irrigation_areas[i]
+            evaporation = min(model.variables.h[i], potential_evaporation[i])
+            model.variables.h[i] -= evaporation
+            model.variables.evaporation[i] = evaporation
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+evaporation!(model::NoIrrigationPaddy, potential_evaporation) = nothing
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_evaporation(model::NoIrrigationPaddy) = 0.0
+get_evaporation(model::Paddy) = model.variables.evaporation
+
+"""
+    update_runoff!(model::Paddy, runoff)
+
+Update `runoff` based on the water depth `h_max` (paddy field starts spilling), and update
+the water depth `h` of the paddy irrigation model for a single timestep.
+"""
+function update_runoff!(model::Paddy, runoff)
+    for i in eachindex(model.parameters.irrigation_areas)
+        if model.parameters.irrigation_areas[i]
+            paddy_runoff = max(runoff[i] - model.parameters.h_max[i], 0.0)
+            model.variables.h[i] = runoff[i] - paddy_runoff
+            runoff[i] = paddy_runoff
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+update_runoff!(model::NoIrrigationPaddy, runoff) = nothing
+
+"""
+    update_demand_gross!(model::Paddy)
+
+Update gross water demand `demand_gross` of the paddy irrigation model for a single
+timestep.
+
+The gross water demand is based on irrigation that is applied when the `irrigation_trigger`
+is `true` (`on`) and when the paddy water depth `h` reaches below the minimum water depth
+`h_min`. Irrigation is the amount required to reach the optimal paddy water depth `h_opt`,
+taking into account limited irrigation efficiency and limited by a maximum irrigation rate.
+"""
+function update_demand_gross!(model::Paddy)
+    (;
+        irrigation_areas,
+        irrigation_trigger,
+        irrigation_efficiency,
+        maximum_irrigation_rate,
+        h_opt,
+        h_min,
+    ) = model.parameters
+    (; h, demand_gross) = model.variables
+    for i in eachindex(irrigation_areas)
+        if irrigation_areas[i] && irrigation_trigger[i]
+            # check if maximum irrigation rate has been applied at the previous time step.
+            max_irri_rate_applied = demand_gross[i] == maximum_irrigation_rate[i]
+            # start irrigation
+            irr_depth_paddy = if h[i] < h_min[i]
+                h_opt[i] - h[i]
+            elseif h[i] < h_opt[i] && max_irri_rate_applied # continue irrigation
+                h_opt[i] - h[i]
+            else
+                0.0
+            end
+            irri_dem_gross = irr_depth_paddy / irrigation_efficiency[i]
+            # limit irrigation demand to the maximum irrigation rate
+            irri_dem_gross = min(irri_dem_gross, maximum_irrigation_rate[i])
+        else
+            irri_dem_gross = 0.0
+        end
+        demand_gross[i] = irri_dem_gross
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+update_demand_gross!(paddy::NoIrrigationPaddy) = nothing
+
+"Struct to store water demand model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct DemandVariables{T}
+    irri_demand_gross::Vector{T}        # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    nonirri_demand_gross::Vector{T}     # non-irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    total_gross_demand::Vector{T}       # total gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    surfacewater_demand::Vector{T}      # demand from surface water [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    groundwater_demand::Vector{T}       # demand from groundwater [mm Δt⁻¹]
+end
+
+"Initialize water demand variables"
+function DemandVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return DemandVariables{T}(;
+        irri_demand_gross = zeros(T, n),
+        nonirri_demand_gross = zeros(T, n),
+        total_gross_demand = zeros(T, n),
+        surfacewater_demand = zeros(T, n),
+        groundwater_demand = zeros(T, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Water demand model"
+@with_kw struct Demand{D, I, L, P, NP, V} <: AbstractDemandModel
+    domestic::D
+    industry::I
+    livestock::L
+    paddy::P
+    nonpaddy::NP
+    variables::V
+end
+
+@with_kw struct NoDemand{T} <: AbstractDemandModel
+    domestic::NoNonIrrigationDemand = NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    industry::NoNonIrrigationDemand = NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    livestock::NoNonIrrigationDemand = NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    paddy::NoIrrigationPaddy{T} = NoIrrigationPaddy{T}()
+    nonpaddy::NoIrrigationNonPaddy{T} = NoIrrigationNonPaddy{T}()
+end
+
+"Initialize water demand model"
+function Demand(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    domestic = if get(config.model.water_demand, "domestic", false)
+        NonIrrigationDemand(nc, config, inds, dt, "domestic")
+    else
+        NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    end
+    industry = if get(config.model.water_demand, "industry", false)
+        NonIrrigationDemand(nc, config, inds, dt, "industry")
+    else
+        NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    end
+    livestock = if get(config.model.water_demand, "livestock", false)
+        NonIrrigationDemand(nc, config, inds, dt, "livestock")
+    else
+        NoNonIrrigationDemand()
+    end
+    paddy = if get(config.model.water_demand, "paddy", false)
+        Paddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    else
+        NoIrrigationPaddy{Float}()
+    end
+    nonpaddy = if get(config.model.water_demand, "nonpaddy", false)
+        NonPaddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    else
+        NoIrrigationNonPaddy{Float}()
+    end
+
+    n = length(inds)
+    vars = DemandVariables(Float, n)
+    demand = Demand(; domestic, industry, livestock, paddy, nonpaddy, variables = vars)
+    return demand
+end
+
+"Struct to store river allocation model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct AllocationRiverVariables{T}
+    act_surfacewater_abst::Vector{T}                        # actual surface water abstraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    act_surfacewater_abst_vol::Vector{T} | "m3 dt-1"        # actual surface water abstraction [m³ Δt⁻¹]
+    available_surfacewater::Vector{T} | "m3"                # available surface water [m³]
+    nonirri_returnflow::Vector{T}                           # return flow from non irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹] 
+end
+
+"Initialize river allocation model variables"
+function AllocationRiverVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return AllocationRiverVariables{T}(;
+        act_surfacewater_abst = zeros(T, n),
+        act_surfacewater_abst_vol = zeros(T, n),
+        available_surfacewater = zeros(T, n),
+        nonirri_returnflow = zeros(T, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"River allocation model"
+@with_kw struct AllocationRiver{T} <: AbstractAllocationModel{T}
+    variables::AllocationRiverVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize water allocation for the river domain"
+function AllocationRiver(n)
+    vars = AllocationRiverVariables(Float, n)
+    allocation = AllocationRiver{Float}(; variables = vars)
+    return allocation
+end
+
+"Struct to store land allocation allocation model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct AllocationLandParameters{T}
+    frac_sw_used::Vector{T} | "-"       # fraction surface water used [-]
+    areas::Vector{Int} | "-"            # allocation areas [-]
+end
+
+"Struct to store land allocation model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct AllocationLandVariables{T}
+    surfacewater_alloc::Vector{T}                       # allocation from surface water [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    act_groundwater_abst::Vector{T}                     # actual groundwater abstraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    act_groundwater_abst_vol::Vector{T} | "m3 dt-1"     # actual groundwater abstraction [m³ Δt⁻¹]
+    available_groundwater::Vector{T} | "m3"             # available groundwater [m³]
+    groundwater_alloc::Vector{T}                        # allocation from groundwater [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    irri_alloc::Vector{T}                               # allocated water for irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    nonirri_alloc::Vector{T}                            # allocated water for non-irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    total_alloc::Vector{T}                              # total allocated water [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    nonirri_returnflow::Vector{T}                       # return flow from non irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+end
+
+"Initialize land allocation model variables"
+function AllocationLandVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return AllocationLandVariables{T}(;
+        surfacewater_alloc = zeros(T, n),
+        act_groundwater_abst = zeros(T, n),
+        act_groundwater_abst_vol = zeros(T, n),
+        available_groundwater = zeros(T, n),
+        groundwater_alloc = zeros(T, n),
+        irri_alloc = zeros(T, n),
+        nonirri_alloc = zeros(T, n),
+        total_alloc = zeros(T, n),
+        nonirri_returnflow = zeros(T, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Land allocation model"
+@with_kw struct AllocationLand{T} <: AbstractAllocationModel{T}
+    parameters::AllocationLandParameters{T}
+    variables::AllocationLandVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize water allocation for the land domain"
+function AllocationLand(nc, config, inds)
+    frac_sw_used = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.allocation.parameters.frac_sw_used";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    areas = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.allocation.parameters.areas";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1,
+        type = Int,
+    )
+
+    n = length(inds)
+
+    params = AllocationLandParameters(; areas = areas, frac_sw_used = frac_sw_used)
+    vars = AllocationLandVariables(Float, n)
+    allocation = AllocationLand(; parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return allocation
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_irrigation_allocated(model::AllocationLand) = model.variables.irri_alloc
+get_irrigation_allocated(model::NoAllocationLand) = 0.0
+
+"Return return flow fraction based on gross water demand `demand_gross` and net water demand `demand_net`"
+function return_flow_fraction(demand_gross, demand_net)
+    fraction = bounded_divide(demand_net, demand_gross)
+    returnflow_fraction = 1.0 - fraction
+    return returnflow_fraction
+end
+
+"Update returnflow fraction for a non-irrigation water demand model"
+function return_flow_fraction!(model::NonIrrigationDemand)
+    (; returnflow_fraction) = model.variables
+    (; demand_gross, demand_net) = model.demand
+    @. returnflow_fraction = return_flow_fraction(demand_gross, demand_net)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+# return zero (gross water demand) if non-irrigation water demand sector is not defined
+return_flow_fraction!(model::NoNonIrrigationDemand) = nothing
+
+"Update water allocation for river and land domains based on local surface water (river) availability."
+function surface_water_allocation_local!(land_allocation, demand, river, network, dt)
+    (; surfacewater_alloc) = land_allocation.variables
+    (; surfacewater_demand) = demand.variables
+    (; act_surfacewater_abst_vol, act_surfacewater_abst, available_surfacewater) =
+        river.allocation.variables
+    # maps from the land domain to the internal river domain (linear index), excluding water bodies
+    index_river = network.land.index_river_wb
+    for i in eachindex(surfacewater_demand)
+        if index_river[i] > 0.0
+            # the available volume is limited by a fixed scaling factor of 0.8 to prevent
+            # rivers completely drying out. check for abstraction through inflow (external
+            # negative inflow) and adjust available volume.
+            if river.inflow[index_river[i]] < 0.0
+                inflow = river.inflow[index_river[i]] * dt
+                available_volume = max(river.volume[index_river[i]] * 0.80 + inflow, 0.0)
+            else
+                available_volume = river.volume[index_river[i]] * 0.80
+            end
+            # satisfy surface water demand with available local river volume
+            surfacewater_demand_vol = surfacewater_demand[i] * 0.001 * network.land.area[i]
+            abstraction_vol = min(surfacewater_demand_vol, available_volume)
+            act_surfacewater_abst_vol[index_river[i]] = abstraction_vol
+            # remaining available surface water and demand 
+            available_surfacewater[index_river[i]] =
+                max(available_volume - abstraction_vol, 0.0)
+            abstraction = (abstraction_vol / network.land.area[i]) * 1000.0
+            surfacewater_demand[i] = max(surfacewater_demand[i] - abstraction, 0.0)
+            # update actual abstraction from river and surface water allocation (land cell)
+            act_surfacewater_abst[index_river[i]] = abstraction
+            surfacewater_alloc[i] = abstraction
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update water allocation for river and land domains based on surface water (river) availability for allocation areas."
+function surface_water_allocation_area!(land_allocation, demand, river, network)
+    inds_river = network.river.indices_allocation_areas
+    inds_land = network.land.indices_allocation_areas
+    res_index = network.river.reservoir_index
+    lake_index = network.river.lake_index
+
+    (; available_surfacewater, act_surfacewater_abst_vol, act_surfacewater_abst) =
+        river.allocation.variables
+    (; surfacewater_alloc) = land_allocation.variables
+    (; surfacewater_demand) = demand.variables
+
+    # loop over allocation areas
+    for i in eachindex(inds_river)
+        # surface water demand (allocation area)
+        sw_demand_vol = 0.0
+        for j in inds_land[i]
+            sw_demand_vol += surfacewater_demand[j] * 0.001 * network.land.area[j]
+        end
+        # surface water availability (allocation area)
+        sw_available = 0.0
+        for j in inds_river[i]
+            if res_index[j] > 0
+                # for reservoir locations use reservoir volume
+                k = res_index[j]
+                available_surfacewater[j] = river.reservoir.volume[k] * 0.98 # limit available reservoir volume
+                sw_available += available_surfacewater[j]
+            elseif lake_index[j] > 0
+                # for lake locations use lake volume
+                k = lake_index[j]
+                available_surfacewater[j] = river.lake.storage[k] * 0.98 # limit available lake volume
+                sw_available += available_surfacewater[j]
+
+            else
+                # river volume
+                sw_available += available_surfacewater[j]
+            end
+        end
+        # total actual surface water abstraction [m3] in an allocation area, minimum of
+        # available surface water and demand in an allocation area.
+        sw_abstraction = min(sw_available, sw_demand_vol)
+
+        # fraction of available surface water that can be abstracted at allocation area
+        # level
+        frac_abstract_sw = bounded_divide(sw_abstraction, sw_available)
+        # fraction of water demand that can be satisfied by available surface water at
+        # allocation area level. 
+        frac_allocate_sw = bounded_divide(sw_abstraction, sw_demand_vol)
+
+        # water abstracted from surface water at each river cell (including reservoir and
+        # lake locations).
+        for j in inds_river[i]
+            act_surfacewater_abst_vol[j] += frac_abstract_sw * available_surfacewater[j]
+            act_surfacewater_abst[j] =
+                (act_surfacewater_abst_vol[j] / network.river.area[j]) * 1000.0
+        end
+
+        # water allocated to each land cell.
+        for j in inds_land[i]
+            surfacewater_alloc[j] += frac_allocate_sw * surfacewater_demand[j]
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update water allocation for land domain based on local groundwater availability."
+function groundwater_allocation_local!(land_allocation, demand, groundwater_volume, network)
+    (;
+        surfacewater_alloc,
+        act_groundwater_abst_vol,
+        available_groundwater,
+        act_groundwater_abst,
+        groundwater_alloc,
+    ) = land_allocation.variables
+    (; groundwater_demand, total_gross_demand) = demand.variables
+
+    for i in eachindex(groundwater_demand)
+        # groundwater demand based on allocation from surface water.
+        groundwater_demand[i] = max(total_gross_demand[i] - surfacewater_alloc[i], 0.0)
+        # land index excluding water bodies
+        if network.index_wb[i]
+            # satisfy groundwater demand with available local groundwater volume
+            groundwater_demand_vol = groundwater_demand[i] * 0.001 * network.area[i]
+            available_volume = groundwater_volume[i] * 0.75 # limit available groundwater volume
+            abstraction_vol = min(groundwater_demand_vol, available_volume)
+            act_groundwater_abst_vol[i] = abstraction_vol
+            # remaining available groundwater and demand 
+            available_groundwater[i] = max(available_volume - abstraction_vol, 0.0)
+            abstraction = (abstraction_vol / network.area[i]) * 1000.0
+            groundwater_demand[i] = max(groundwater_demand[i] - abstraction, 0.0)
+            # update actual abstraction from groundwater and groundwater allocation (land cell)
+            act_groundwater_abst[i] = abstraction
+            groundwater_alloc[i] = abstraction
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update water allocation for land domain based on groundwater availability for allocation areas."
+function groundwater_allocation_area!(land_allocation, demand, network)
+    inds_river = network.river.indices_allocation_areas
+    inds_land = network.land.indices_allocation_areas
+    (;
+        act_groundwater_abst_vol,
+        available_groundwater,
+        act_groundwater_abst,
+        groundwater_alloc,
+    ) = land_allocation.variables
+
+    (; groundwater_demand) = demand.variables
+
+    # loop over allocation areas
+    for i in eachindex(inds_river)
+        # groundwater demand and availability (allocation area)
+        gw_demand_vol = 0.0
+        gw_available = 0.0
+        for j in inds_land[i]
+            gw_demand_vol += groundwater_demand[j] * 0.001 * network.land.area[j]
+            gw_available += available_groundwater[j]
+        end
+        # total actual groundwater abstraction [m3] in an allocation area, minimum of
+        # available  groundwater and demand in an allocation area.
+        gw_abstraction = min(gw_available, gw_demand_vol)
+
+        # fraction of available groundwater that can be abstracted at allocation area level
+        frac_abstract_gw = bounded_divide(gw_abstraction, gw_available)
+        # fraction of water demand that can be satisfied by available groundwater at
+        # allocation area level.
+        frac_allocate_gw = bounded_divide(gw_abstraction, gw_demand_vol)
+
+        # water abstracted from groundwater and allocated.
+        for j in inds_land[i]
+            act_groundwater_abst_vol[j] += frac_abstract_gw * available_groundwater[j]
+            act_groundwater_abst[j] =
+                1000.0 * (act_groundwater_abst_vol[j] / network.land.area[j])
+            groundwater_alloc[j] += frac_allocate_gw * groundwater_demand[j]
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Return and update non-irrigation sector (domestic, livestock, industry) return flow"
+function return_flow(non_irri::NonIrrigationDemand, nonirri_demand_gross, nonirri_alloc)
+    for i in eachindex(non_irri.variables.returnflow)
+        frac = bounded_divide(non_irri.demand.demand_gross[i], nonirri_demand_gross[i])
+        allocate = frac * nonirri_alloc[i]
+        non_irri.variables.returnflow[i] =
+            non_irri.variables.returnflow_fraction[i] * allocate
+    end
+    return non_irri.variables.returnflow
+end
+
+# return zero (return flow) if non-irrigation sector is not defined
+return_flow(non_irri::NoNonIrrigationDemand, nonirri_demand_gross, nonirri_alloc) = 0.0
+
+# wrapper methods
+groundwater_volume(model::LateralSSF) = model.volume
+groundwater_volume(model) = model.flow.aquifer.volume
+
+"""
+    update_water_allocation!(land_allocation, demand::Demand, lateral, network, dt)
+
+Update water allocation for the land domain `land_allocation` and water allocation for the
+river domain (part of `lateral`) based on the water `demand` model for a single timestep.
+First, surface water abstraction is computed to satisfy local water demand (non-irrigation
+and irrigation), and then updated (including lakes and reservoirs) to satisfy the remaining
+water demand for allocation areas. Then groundwater abstraction is computed to satisfy the
+remaining local water demand, and then updated to satisfy the remaining water demand for
+allocation areas. Finally, non-irrigation return flows are updated.
+"""
+function update_water_allocation!(land_allocation, demand::Demand, lateral, network, dt)
+    river = lateral.river
+    index_river = network.land.index_river_wb
+    res_index_f = network.river.reservoir_index_f
+    lake_index_f = network.river.lake_index_f
+    (;
+        groundwater_alloc,
+        surfacewater_alloc,
+        act_groundwater_abst,
+        act_groundwater_abst_vol,
+        total_alloc,
+        irri_alloc,
+        nonirri_alloc,
+        nonirri_returnflow,
+    ) = land_allocation.variables
+
+    (; surfacewater_demand, nonirri_demand_gross, irri_demand_gross, total_gross_demand) =
+        demand.variables
+
+    (; frac_sw_used) = land_allocation.parameters
+    (; act_surfacewater_abst, act_surfacewater_abst_vol) = river.allocation.variables
+
+    surfacewater_alloc .= 0.0
+    act_surfacewater_abst .= 0.0
+    act_surfacewater_abst_vol .= 0.0
+    # total surface water demand for each land cell
+    @. surfacewater_demand =
+        frac_sw_used * nonirri_demand_gross + frac_sw_used * irri_demand_gross
+
+    # local surface water demand and allocation (river, excluding reservoirs and lakes)
+    surface_water_allocation_local!(land_allocation, demand, river, network, dt)
+    # surface water demand and allocation for areas
+    surface_water_allocation_area!(land_allocation, demand, river, network)
+
+    @. river.abstraction = act_surfacewater_abst_vol / dt
+
+    # for reservoir and lake locations set river abstraction at zero and abstract volume
+    # from reservoir and lake, including an update of lake waterlevel
+    if !isnothing(river.reservoir)
+        @. river.abstraction[res_index_f] = 0.0
+        @. river.reservoir.volume -= act_surfacewater_abst_vol[res_index_f]
+    elseif !isnothing(river.lake)
+        @. river.abstraction[lake_index_f] = 0.0
+        lakes = river.lake
+        @. lakes.storage -= act_surfacewater_abst_vol[lake_index_f]
+        @. lakes.waterlevel =
+            waterlevel(lakes.storfunc, lakes.area, lakes.storage, lakes.sh)
+    end
+
+    groundwater_alloc .= 0.0
+    act_groundwater_abst_vol .= 0.0
+    act_groundwater_abst .= 0.0
+    # local groundwater demand and allocation
+    groundwater_allocation_local!(
+        land_allocation,
+        demand,
+        groundwater_volume(lateral.subsurface),
+        network.land,
+    )
+    # groundwater demand and allocation for areas
+    groundwater_allocation_area!(land_allocation, demand, network)
+
+    # irrigation allocation
+    for i in eachindex(total_alloc)
+        total_alloc[i] = groundwater_alloc[i] + surfacewater_alloc[i]
+        frac_irri = bounded_divide(irri_demand_gross[i], total_gross_demand[i])
+        irri_alloc[i] = frac_irri * total_alloc[i]
+        nonirri_alloc[i] = total_alloc[i] - irri_alloc[i]
+    end
+
+    # non-irrigation return flows
+    returnflow_livestock =
+        return_flow(demand.livestock, nonirri_demand_gross, nonirri_alloc)
+    returnflow_domestic = return_flow(demand.domestic, nonirri_demand_gross, nonirri_alloc)
+    returnflow_industry = return_flow(demand.industry, nonirri_demand_gross, nonirri_alloc)
+
+    @. nonirri_returnflow = returnflow_livestock + returnflow_domestic + returnflow_industry
+
+    for i in eachindex(nonirri_returnflow)
+        if index_river[i] > 0.0
+            k = index_river[i]
+            river.allocation.variables.nonirri_returnflow[k] = nonirri_returnflow[i]
+            nonirri_returnflow[i] = 0.0
+        else
+            nonirri_returnflow[i] = nonirri_returnflow[i]
+        end
+    end
+end
+update_water_allocation!(allocation, demand::NoDemand, lateral, network, dt) = nothing
+
+"""
+    update_demand_gross!(demand::Demand)
+
+Update total irrigation gross water demand `irri_demand_gross`, total non-irrigation gross
+water demand `nonirri_demand_gross` and total gross water demand `total_gross_demand`.
+"""
+function update_demand_gross!(demand::Demand)
+    (; nonpaddy, paddy, domestic, industry, livestock) = demand
+    (; irri_demand_gross, nonirri_demand_gross, total_gross_demand) = demand.variables
+    # get gross water demands
+    industry_dem = get_demand_gross(industry)
+    domestic_dem = get_demand_gross(domestic)
+    livestock_dem = get_demand_gross(livestock)
+    nonpaddy_dem_gross = get_demand_gross(nonpaddy)
+    paddy_dem_gross = get_demand_gross(paddy)
+    # update gross water demands
+    @. irri_demand_gross = nonpaddy_dem_gross + paddy_dem_gross
+    @. nonirri_demand_gross = industry_dem + domestic_dem + livestock_dem
+    @. total_gross_demand =
+        nonpaddy_dem_gross + paddy_dem_gross + industry_dem + domestic_dem + livestock_dem
+
+    return nothing
+end
+
+update_demand_gross!(demand::NoDemand) = nothing
+
+"""
+    update_water_demand!(demand::Demand, soil)
+
+Update the return flow fraction `returnflow_fraction` of `industry`, `domestic` and
+`livestock`, gross water demand `demand_gross` of `paddy` and `nonpaddy` models, and the
+total gross water demand, total irrigation gross water demand and total non-irrigation gross
+water demand as part of the water `demand` model.
+"""
+function update_water_demand!(demand::Demand, soil)
+    (; nonpaddy, paddy, domestic, industry, livestock) = demand
+
+    return_flow_fraction!(industry)
+    return_flow_fraction!(domestic)
+    return_flow_fraction!(livestock)
+
+    update_demand_gross!(nonpaddy, soil)
+    update_demand_gross!(paddy)
+    update_demand_gross!(demand)
+
+    return nothing
+end
+update_water_demand!(demand::NoDemand, soil) = nothing
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/flextopo.jl b/src/flextopo.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index d547a34b9..000000000
--- a/src/flextopo.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,882 +0,0 @@
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct FLEXTOPO{T,N}
-    # Model time step [s]
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    # Number of classes
-    nclass::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    # Number of cells
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    #dictionary with all possible functions for each store
-    dic_function::Dict | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    #current class
-    kclass::Vector{Int64} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    classes::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_snow::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_interception::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_hortonponding::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_hortonrunoff::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_rootzone::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_fast::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    select_slow::Vector{String} | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-
-    #fraction of each class
-    hrufrac::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    ## PARAMETERS
-    ##SNOW
-    # Correction factor for precipitation [-]
-    pcorr::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹]
-    cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
-    # Threshold temperature for snowfall [ᵒC]
-    tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Threshold temperature interval length [ᵒC]
-    tti::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Threshold temperature for snowmelt [ᵒC]
-    ttm::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Water holding capacity as fraction of current snow pack [-]
-    whc::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Refreezing efficiency constant in refreezing of freewater in snow [-]
-    cfr::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Correction factor for precipitation [-]
-    rfcf::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Correction factor for snowfall [-]
-    sfcf::Vector{T} | "-"
-    ## GLACIER
-    # Threshold temperature for snowfall above glacier [ᵒC]
-    g_tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹] for glacier
-    g_cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
-    # Fraction of the snowpack on top of the glacier converted into ice [Δt⁻¹]
-    g_sifrac::Vector{T} | "dt-1"
-    # Water within the glacier [mm]
-    glacierstore::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Fraction covered by a glacier [-]
-    glacierfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
-    ##INTERCEPTION
-    # Maximum interception storage (in forested and non-forested areas) [mm]
-    imax::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Evap correction [-]
-    ecorr::Vector{T} | "-"
-    ##HORTON
-    # Maximum storage capacity in the hortonian ponding storage [mm]
-    shmax::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    #recession coefficient of the hortonian runoff storage [dt-1]
-    khf::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "dt-1"
-    #maximum modelled accumulated frost resulting in shmin [ᵒC Δt]
-    facc0::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "ᵒC"
-    #minimum modelled accumulated frost resulting in shmax [ᵒC Δt]
-    facc1::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "ᵒC"
-    #exponent for the decline of infiltration capacity [-]
-    fdec::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    #maximum infiltration capacity from horton ponding [mm dt-1]
-    fmax::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #minimum storage capacity in horton ponding (relative to shmax) [-]
-    shmin::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    #melt coefficient for melt of frozen topsoil [-]
-    kmf::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    ##ROOTZONE
-    # maximum root-zone storage capacity [mm]
-    srmax::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Fraction of root zone storage below which actual evaporation is potential evaporation [-]
-    lp::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Exponent in soil runoff generation equation [-]
-    beta::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # maximum percolation rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    perc::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # maximum capillary rise rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    cap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #FAST
-    # Exponent for non linear recession [-]
-    alfa::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    #recession coefficient of fast storage [dt-1]
-    kf::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "dt-1"
-    # fraction of qrootzone to slowstorage (1-ds to faststorage)
-    ds::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # SLOW
-    #recession coefficient of slow storage [dt-1]
-    ks::Vector{T} | "dt-1"
-
-    ## STATES
-    ##SNOW
-    # Snow water equivalent [mm]
-    snow::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Liquid water content in the snow pack [mm]
-    snowwater::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Interception storage [mm]
-    interceptionstorage::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the hortonian ponding reservoir [mm]
-    hortonpondingstorage::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the hortonian runoff generation [mm]
-    hortonrunoffstorage::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the root-zone [mm]
-    rootzonestorage::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the root-zone relative to maximum root-zone storage capacity [mm]
-    srootzone_over_srmax::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the fast store [mm]
-    faststorage::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Storage in the slow reservoir (for qcapillary calc) [mm]
-    slowstorage::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    #states previous time step to calc water balance [mm]
-    states_::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    #states previous time step to calc water balance combined based on perc class. [mm]
-    states_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    #states averaged over classes
-    interceptionstorage_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    hortonpondingstorage_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    hortonrunoffstorage_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    srootzone_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    faststorage_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    srootzone_over_srmax_m::Vector{T} | "mm"
-
-    ## FLUXES
-    #SNOW
-    # Precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    precipitation::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Temperature [ᵒC]
-    temperature::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Potential evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    potential_evaporation::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Potential evapotranspiration corrected [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    epotcorr::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Precipitation corrected [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    precipcorr::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Snow melt + precipitation as rainfall [mm]
-    rainfallplusmelt::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Snowfall [mm]
-    snowfall::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Snowmelt [mm]
-    snowmelt::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #INTERCEPTION
-    # Potential soil evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    potsoilevap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Evaporation from interception storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    intevap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #effective precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    precipeffective::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Evaporation from interception sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    intevap_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #HORTONPONDING
-    # Evaporation from the hortonion ponding storage [-]
-    hortonevap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Flux from the hortonian ponding storage to the hortonian runoff storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qhortonpond::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Flux from the hortonian ponding storage to the root zone storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qhortonrootzone::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # modeled accumulated frost [ᵒC Δt]
-    facc::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "ᵒC Δt"
-    # Evaporation from the hortonian sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    hortonevap_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #HORTONRUNOFF
-    # Flux from the hortonian runoff storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qhortonrun::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #ROOTZONE
-    # Evaporation from the root-zone storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    rootevap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Flux from the root-zone storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qrootzone::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Pref. recharge to fast storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qrootzonefast::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Pref. recharge to slow storage sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qrootzoneslow_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Capillary flux from the slow to the root-zone storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qcapillary::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Capillary flux from the slow to the root-zone storage sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qcapillary_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Percolation flux from the root-zone to the slow storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qpercolation::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Percolation flux from the root-zone to the slow storage sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qpercolation_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Evaporation from the root-zone storage, interception and hortonian [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actevap::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Evaporation from the root-zone storage, interception and hortonian sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actevap_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # Evaporation from the root-zone storage sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    rootevap_m::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #FAST
-    # runoff from fast reservoir [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qfast::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #SLOW
-    # runoff from slow reservoir [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qslow::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #Total [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    runoff::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    # fast runoff sum classes [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    qfast_tot = Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-
-
-    ## WATERBALANCES
-    #water balance snow store
-    wb_snow::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance interception storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_interception::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance hortonian ponding storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_hortonponding::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance hortonian runoff storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_hortonrunoff::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance root-zone storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_rootzone::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance fast storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_fast::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm dt-1"
-    #water balance slow storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_slow::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-    #total water balance [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    wb_tot::Vector{T} | "mm dt-1"
-
-end
-
-
-function common_snow_hbv(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        # precip correction
-        precipcorr = flextopo.precipitation[i] * flextopo.pcorr[i]
-
-        #hbv snow
-        snow, snowwater, snowmelt, rainfallplusmelt, snowfall = snowpack_hbv(
-            flextopo.snow[i],
-            flextopo.snowwater[i],
-            precipcorr,
-            flextopo.temperature[i],
-            flextopo.tti[i],
-            flextopo.tt[i],
-            flextopo.ttm[i],
-            flextopo.cfmax[i],
-            flextopo.whc[i],
-        )
-
-        #wb
-        wb_snow =
-            precipcorr - rainfallplusmelt - snow + flextopo.snow[i] - snowwater +
-            flextopo.snowwater[i]
-
-        #update stores
-        # states_ is sum of states of previous time steps to compute WB at the end (per class); states_m is for combined stores
-        flextopo.states_m[i] = flextopo.snow[i] + flextopo.snowwater[i]
-        flextopo.snowfall[i] = snowfall
-        flextopo.snowmelt[i] = snowmelt
-        flextopo.snow[i] = snow
-        flextopo.snowwater[i] = snowwater
-        flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        flextopo.precipcorr[i] = precipcorr
-        flextopo.wb_snow[i] = wb_snow
-    end
-end
-
-function common_snow_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        snow = 0.0
-        snowwater = 0.0
-        snowfall = 0.0
-        snowmelt = 0.0
-        # precip correction
-        precipcorr = flextopo.precipitation[i] * flextopo.pcorr[i]
-        rainfallplusmelt = precipcorr
-
-        wb_snow = precipcorr - rainfallplusmelt - snow + flextopo.snow[i]
-
-        #update stores
-        # states_ is sum of states of previous time steps to compute WB at the end (per class); states_m is for combined stores
-        flextopo.states_m[i] = flextopo.snow[i] + flextopo.snowwater[i]
-        flextopo.snowfall[i] = snowfall
-        flextopo.snowmelt[i] = snowmelt
-        flextopo.snow[i] = snow
-        flextopo.snowwater[i] = snowwater
-        flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        flextopo.wb_snow[i] = wb_snow
-        flextopo.precipcorr[i] = precipcorr
-    end
-end
-
-function common_glaciers(flextopo::FLEXTOPO, config)
-    modelglacier = get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        if modelglacier
-            # Run Glacier module and add the snowpack on-top of it.
-            # Estimate the fraction of snow turned into ice (HBV-light).
-            # Estimate glacier melt.
-
-            flextopo.snow[i], snow2glacier, flextopo.glacierstore[i], glaciermelt =
-                glacier_hbv(
-                    flextopo.glacierfrac[i],
-                    flextopo.glacierstore[i],
-                    flextopo.snow[i],
-                    flextopo.temperature[i],
-                    flextopo.g_tt[i],
-                    flextopo.g_cfmax[i],
-                    flextopo.g_sifrac[i],
-                    Second(flextopo.dt),
-                )
-            # Convert to mm per grid cell and add to snowmelt
-            glaciermelt = glaciermelt * flextopo.glacierfrac[i]
-            rainfallplusmelt = flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] + glaciermelt
-        else
-            rainfallplusmelt = flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i]
-        end
-    end
-end
-
-
-function interception_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        intevap = 0.0
-        precipeffective = max(flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i], 0.0)
-        interceptionstorage = 0.0
-
-        # correction for potential evaporation
-        epotcorr = flextopo.ecorr[i] * flextopo.potential_evaporation[i]
-        restevap = max(0.0, epotcorr - intevap)
-
-        #wb interceptionstore
-        wb_interception =
-            flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] - intevap - precipeffective - interceptionstorage +
-            flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update stores
-        flextopo.states_[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.states_[i], flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k], k)
-        flextopo.interceptionstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.interceptionstorage[i], interceptionstorage, k)
-        flextopo.intevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.intevap[i], intevap, k)
-        flextopo.precipeffective[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.precipeffective[i], precipeffective, k)
-        flextopo.potsoilevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.potsoilevap[i], restevap, k)
-        flextopo.epotcorr[i] = epotcorr
-        flextopo.wb_interception[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_interception[i], wb_interception, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.interceptionstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.interceptionstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.intevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.intevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-    end
-end
-
-function interception_overflow(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        # rainfall added to interception store interceptionstorage
-        interception = min(
-            flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i],
-            flextopo.imax[i][k] - flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k],
-        )
-        # current interception storage
-        interceptionstorage = flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k] + interception
-        precipeffective = flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] - interception
-
-        # correction for potential evaporation
-        epotcorr = flextopo.ecorr[i] * flextopo.potential_evaporation[i]
-
-        # evaporation from interception storage
-        intevap = min(interceptionstorage, epotcorr)
-        interceptionstorage = interceptionstorage - intevap
-        restevap = max(0.0, epotcorr - intevap)
-
-        #wb interceptionstore
-        wb_interception =
-            flextopo.rainfallplusmelt[i] - intevap - precipeffective - interceptionstorage +
-            flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update stores
-        flextopo.states_[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.states_[i], flextopo.interceptionstorage[i][k], k)
-        flextopo.interceptionstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.interceptionstorage[i], interceptionstorage, k)
-        flextopo.intevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.intevap[i], intevap, k)
-        flextopo.precipeffective[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.precipeffective[i], precipeffective, k)
-        flextopo.potsoilevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.potsoilevap[i], restevap, k)
-        flextopo.epotcorr[i] = epotcorr
-        flextopo.wb_interception[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_interception[i], wb_interception, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.interceptionstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.interceptionstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.intevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.intevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-    end
-end
-
-
-function hortonponding_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        hortonevap = 0.0
-        qhortonpond = 0.0
-        qhortonrootzone = max(flextopo.precipeffective[i][k], 0.0)
-        hortonpondingstorage = 0.0
-
-        wb_hortonponding =
-            flextopo.precipeffective[i][k] - hortonevap - qhortonpond - qhortonrootzone -
-            hortonpondingstorage + flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qhortonpond[i] = setindex(flextopo.qhortonpond[i], qhortonpond, k)
-        flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i], qhortonrootzone, k)
-        flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i], hortonpondingstorage, k)
-        flextopo.hortonevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.hortonevap[i], hortonevap, k)
-        flextopo.wb_hortonponding[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_hortonponding[i], wb_hortonponding, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.hortonpondingstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.hortonevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.hortonevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function hortonponding(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-
-        #calculate reduction of shmax due to frost
-        facc = min(flextopo.facc[i][k] + flextopo.temperature[i] * flextopo.kmf[i][k], 0.0)
-        ft = min(
-            max(
-                facc / (flextopo.facc1[i][k] - flextopo.facc0[i][k]) -
-                flextopo.facc0[i][k] / (flextopo.facc1[i][k] - flextopo.facc0[i][k]),
-                flextopo.shmin[i][k],
-            ),
-            1.0,
-        )
-        shmax_frost = ft * flextopo.shmax[i][k]
-
-        #add effective precipitation from interception to the horton ponding storage.
-        hortonpondingstorage =
-            flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i][k] + flextopo.precipeffective[i][k]
-        # if soil is filled until max capacity, additional water runs of directly
-        directrunoff_h = max(hortonpondingstorage - shmax_frost, 0.0)
-        #update hortonpondingstorage
-        hortonpondingstorage = hortonpondingstorage - directrunoff_h
-        #net water which infiltrates in horton (careful, shmax_frost can decrease from one timestep to another)
-        netin_hortonpond = max(flextopo.precipeffective[i][k] - directrunoff_h, 0.0)
-
-        #evaporation from the horton ponding storage
-        hortonevap =
-            hortonpondingstorage > shmax_frost * flextopo.lp[i][k] ?
-            min(hortonpondingstorage, flextopo.potsoilevap[i][k]) :
-            min(
-                flextopo.potsoilevap[i][k] *
-                (hortonpondingstorage / (shmax_frost * flextopo.lp[i][k])),
-            )
-        #update storage
-        hortonpondingstorage = hortonpondingstorage - hortonevap
-        #update restevap
-        restevap = max(0.0, flextopo.potsoilevap[i][k] - hortonevap)
-
-        #excess water from beta function of netin_hortonpond (due to rouding hortonpondingstorage could be slightly larger than shmax_frost, make sure it is always less than 1)
-        qhorton_in =
-            netin_hortonpond * (
-                1.0 - pow(
-                    (1.0 - min(hortonpondingstorage / shmax_frost, 1.0)),
-                    flextopo.beta[i][k],
-                )
-            )
-        #update storage
-        hortonpondingstorage = hortonpondingstorage - qhorton_in
-
-        #total water out of horton ponding consists of directrunoff and excess water from beta function
-        qhortonpond = directrunoff_h + qhorton_in
-
-        #infiltration to root-zone
-        qhortonrootzone =
-            min(hortonpondingstorage / shmax_frost, 1.0) > 0.0 ?
-            min(
-                flextopo.fmax[i][k] * exp(
-                    -flextopo.fdec[i][k] *
-                    (1.0 - min(hortonpondingstorage / shmax_frost, 1.0)),
-                ),
-                hortonpondingstorage,
-            ) : 0.0
-        hortonpondingstorage = hortonpondingstorage - qhortonrootzone
-
-        #water balance
-        wb_hortonponding =
-            flextopo.precipeffective[i][k] - hortonevap - qhortonpond - qhortonrootzone -
-            hortonpondingstorage + flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update states
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.potsoilevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.potsoilevap[i], restevap, k)
-        flextopo.qhortonpond[i] = setindex(flextopo.qhortonpond[i], qhortonpond, k)
-        flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i], qhortonrootzone, k)
-        flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i], hortonpondingstorage, k)
-        flextopo.hortonevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.hortonevap[i], hortonevap, k)
-        flextopo.wb_hortonponding[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_hortonponding[i], wb_hortonponding, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.hortonpondingstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.hortonevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.hortonevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function hortonrunoff_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        qhortonrun = 0.0
-        hortonrunoffstorage = 0.0
-
-        wb_hortonrunoff =
-            flextopo.qhortonpond[i][k] - qhortonrun - hortonrunoffstorage +
-            flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qhortonrun[i] = setindex(flextopo.qhortonrun[i], qhortonrun, k)
-        flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i], hortonrunoffstorage, k)
-        flextopo.wb_hortonrunoff[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_hortonrunoff[i], wb_hortonrunoff, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function hortonrunoff(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-
-        qhortonrun = min(
-            flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k],
-            flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k] * flextopo.khf[i][k],
-        )
-        hortonrunoffstorage =
-            flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k] + flextopo.qhortonpond[i][k] - qhortonrun
-
-        wb_hortonrunoff =
-            flextopo.qhortonpond[i][k] - qhortonrun - hortonrunoffstorage +
-            flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k]
-
-        #update with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qhortonrun[i] = setindex(flextopo.qhortonrun[i], qhortonrun, k)
-        flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i], hortonrunoffstorage, k)
-        flextopo.wb_hortonrunoff[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.wb_hortonrunoff[i], wb_hortonrunoff, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-    end
-end
-
-function rootzone_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        rootevap = 0.0
-        qpercolation = 0.0
-        qcapillary = 0.0
-        qrootzone =
-            max(flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i][k] + flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k], 0.0) #if store not empty initial conditions
-        rootzonestorage = 0.0
-
-        #compute water balance rootzonestorage storage
-        wb_rootzone =
-            flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i][k] - rootevap - qrootzone - qpercolation +
-            qcapillary - rootzonestorage + flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k]
-
-        #update states and fluxes with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qrootzone[i] = setindex(flextopo.qrootzone[i], qrootzone, k)
-        flextopo.rootzonestorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.rootzonestorage[i], rootzonestorage, k)
-        flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i],
-            flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k] / flextopo.srmax[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qcapillary[i] = setindex(flextopo.qcapillary[i], qcapillary, k)
-        flextopo.qpercolation[i] = setindex(flextopo.qpercolation[i], qpercolation, k)
-        flextopo.rootevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.rootevap[i], rootevap, k)
-        flextopo.actevap[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.actevap[i],
-            flextopo.rootevap[i][k] + flextopo.intevap[i][k] + flextopo.hortonevap[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.wb_rootzone[i] = setindex(flextopo.wb_rootzone[i], wb_rootzone, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.srootzone_m[i] = sum(flextopo.rootzonestorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.rootevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.rootevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.actevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.actevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function rootzone_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-
-        #added water to the root-zone. NB: if no horton storages: qhortonrootzone is in fact Pe!! (effective precip).
-        rootzonestorage = flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k] + flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i][k]
-        # if soil is filled until max capacity, additional water runs of directly
-        directrunoff = max(rootzonestorage - flextopo.srmax[i][k], 0.0)
-        #update rootzonestorage
-        rootzonestorage = rootzonestorage - directrunoff
-        #net water which infiltrates in root-zone
-        netin_rootzone = flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i][k] - directrunoff
-
-        #evaporation from the rootzone
-        rootevap =
-            rootzonestorage > flextopo.srmax[i][k] * flextopo.lp[i][k] ?
-            min(rootzonestorage, flextopo.potsoilevap[i][k]) :
-            min(
-                flextopo.potsoilevap[i][k] *
-                (rootzonestorage / (flextopo.srmax[i][k] * flextopo.lp[i][k])),
-            )
-        #update storage
-        rootzonestorage = rootzonestorage - rootevap
-
-        #excess water from beta function of netin_rootzone
-        qrootzone_in =
-            netin_rootzone *
-            (1.0 - pow(1.0 - rootzonestorage / flextopo.srmax[i][k], flextopo.beta[i][k]))
-        #update storage
-        rootzonestorage = rootzonestorage - qrootzone_in
-
-        #total water out of root-zone consists of directrunoff and excess water from beta function
-        qrootzone = directrunoff + qrootzone_in
-
-        #percolation
-        qpercolation = flextopo.perc[i][k] * rootzonestorage / flextopo.srmax[i][k]
-        rootzonestorage = rootzonestorage - qpercolation
-
-        #capillary rise
-        qcapillary = min(
-            flextopo.cap[i][k] * (1.0 - rootzonestorage / flextopo.srmax[i][k]),
-            flextopo.slowstorage[i],
-        )
-        rootzonestorage = rootzonestorage + qcapillary
-
-        #compute water balance rootzonestorage storage
-        wb_rootzone =
-            flextopo.qhortonrootzone[i][k] - rootevap - qrootzone - qpercolation +
-            qcapillary - rootzonestorage + flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k]
-
-        #update states and fluxes with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qrootzone[i] = setindex(flextopo.qrootzone[i], qrootzone, k)
-        flextopo.rootzonestorage[i] =
-            setindex(flextopo.rootzonestorage[i], rootzonestorage, k)
-        flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i],
-            flextopo.rootzonestorage[i][k] / flextopo.srmax[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qcapillary[i] = setindex(flextopo.qcapillary[i], qcapillary, k)
-        flextopo.qpercolation[i] = setindex(flextopo.qpercolation[i], qpercolation, k)
-        flextopo.rootevap[i] = setindex(flextopo.rootevap[i], rootevap, k)
-        flextopo.actevap[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.actevap[i],
-            flextopo.rootevap[i][k] + flextopo.intevap[i][k] + flextopo.hortonevap[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.wb_rootzone[i] = setindex(flextopo.wb_rootzone[i], wb_rootzone, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.srootzone_m[i] = sum(flextopo.rootzonestorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax_m[i] =
-            sum(flextopo.srootzone_over_srmax[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.rootevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.rootevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        flextopo.actevap_m[i] = sum(flextopo.actevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-
-function fast_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        #make sure ds does not exceed 1
-        ds = flextopo.ds[i][k] > 1.0 ? 1.0 : flextopo.ds[i][k]
-        #calc inflow to faststorage
-        qrootzonefast = flextopo.qrootzone[i][k] * (1.0 - ds)
-        qfast = qrootzonefast + flextopo.faststorage[i][k] #if store not empty initial conditions, make sure to empty
-        faststorage = 0.0
-
-        #compute wb faststorage
-        wb_fast = qrootzonefast - qfast - faststorage + flextopo.faststorage[i][k]
-
-        #update with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.faststorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qrootzonefast[i] = setindex(flextopo.qrootzonefast[i], qrootzonefast, k)
-        flextopo.qfast[i] = setindex(flextopo.qfast[i], qfast, k)
-        flextopo.faststorage[i] = setindex(flextopo.faststorage[i], faststorage, k)
-        flextopo.wb_fast[i] = setindex(flextopo.wb_fast[i], wb_fast, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.faststorage_m[i] = sum(flextopo.faststorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function fast_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    k = flextopo.kclass[1]
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-
-        #make sure ds does not exceed 1
-        ds = flextopo.ds[i][k] > 1.0 ? 1.0 : flextopo.ds[i][k]
-
-        #split part of the outflow from the root-zone to the fast runoff (and part as preferential recharge to the slow reservoir)
-        qrootzonefast = flextopo.qrootzone[i][k] * (1.0 - ds)
-
-        #fast runoff
-        qfast = min(
-            flextopo.faststorage[i][k],
-            pow(flextopo.faststorage[i][k], flextopo.alfa[i][k]) * flextopo.kf[i][k],
-        )
-        #update store
-        faststorage = flextopo.faststorage[i][k] + qrootzonefast - qfast
-
-        #compute wb faststorage
-        wb_fast = qrootzonefast - qfast - faststorage + flextopo.faststorage[i][k]
-
-        #update with setindex
-        flextopo.states_[i] = setindex(
-            flextopo.states_[i],
-            flextopo.states_[i][k] + flextopo.faststorage[i][k],
-            k,
-        )
-        flextopo.qrootzonefast[i] = setindex(flextopo.qrootzonefast[i], qrootzonefast, k)
-        flextopo.qfast[i] = setindex(flextopo.qfast[i], qfast, k)
-        flextopo.faststorage[i] = setindex(flextopo.faststorage[i], faststorage, k)
-        flextopo.wb_fast[i] = setindex(flextopo.wb_fast[i], wb_fast, k)
-
-        #average storage over classes
-        flextopo.faststorage_m[i] = sum(flextopo.faststorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-    end
-end
-
-function slow_no_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        #make sure ds does not exceed 1
-        pref_recharge = flextopo.qrootzone[i] .* min.(flextopo.ds[i], 1.0)
-        pref_recharge_sum_classes = sum(pref_recharge .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-        Qcap_sum_classes = sum(flextopo.qcapillary[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        Qperc_sum_classes = sum(flextopo.qpercolation[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-        Qsin = pref_recharge_sum_classes + Qperc_sum_classes - Qcap_sum_classes
-        qslow = Qsin + flextopo.slowstorage[i] # if at start store is not empty
-        slowstorage = 0.0
-
-        qfast_tot =
-            sum(flextopo.qfast[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.qhortonrun[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        runoff = max(0.0, qslow + qfast_tot)
-
-        wb_slow = Qsin - qslow - slowstorage + flextopo.slowstorage[i]
-
-        #update
-        flextopo.qfast_tot[i] = qfast_tot
-        flextopo.states_m[i] =
-            flextopo.states_m[i] +
-            sum(flextopo.states_[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            flextopo.slowstorage[i]
-        flextopo.runoff[i] = runoff
-        flextopo.qrootzoneslow_m[i] = pref_recharge_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qpercolation_m[i] = Qperc_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qcapillary_m[i] = Qcap_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qslow[i] = qslow
-        flextopo.slowstorage[i] = slowstorage
-        flextopo.wb_slow[i] = wb_slow
-    end
-end
-
-function common_slow_storage(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        #make sure ds does not exceed 1
-        pref_recharge = flextopo.qrootzone[i] .* min.(flextopo.ds[i], 1.0)
-        pref_recharge_sum_classes = sum(pref_recharge .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-        Qcap_sum_classes = sum(flextopo.qcapillary[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        Qperc_sum_classes = sum(flextopo.qpercolation[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-
-        Qsin = pref_recharge_sum_classes + Qperc_sum_classes - Qcap_sum_classes
-        slowstorage = flextopo.slowstorage[i] + Qsin
-
-        qslow = min(flextopo.slowstorage[i], flextopo.slowstorage[i] * flextopo.ks[i])
-        slowstorage = slowstorage - qslow
-
-        qfast_tot =
-            sum(flextopo.qfast[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.qhortonrun[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        runoff = max(0.0, qslow + qfast_tot)
-
-        wb_slow = Qsin - qslow - slowstorage + flextopo.slowstorage[i]
-
-        #update
-        flextopo.qfast_tot[i] = qfast_tot
-        flextopo.states_m[i] =
-            flextopo.states_m[i] +
-            sum(flextopo.states_[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            flextopo.slowstorage[i]
-        flextopo.runoff[i] = runoff
-        flextopo.qrootzoneslow_m[i] = pref_recharge_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qpercolation_m[i] = Qperc_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qcapillary_m[i] = Qcap_sum_classes
-        flextopo.qslow[i] = qslow
-        flextopo.slowstorage[i] = slowstorage
-        flextopo.wb_slow[i] = wb_slow
-    end
-end
-
-function watbal(flextopo::FLEXTOPO)
-    for i = 1:flextopo.n
-        states =
-            flextopo.snow[i] +
-            flextopo.snowwater[i] +
-            sum(flextopo.interceptionstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.hortonpondingstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.hortonrunoffstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.rootzonestorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.faststorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-            sum(flextopo.slowstorage[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-        wb_tot =
-            flextopo.precipitation[i] - (
-                sum(flextopo.intevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-                sum(flextopo.hortonevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i]) +
-                sum(flextopo.rootevap[i] .* flextopo.hrufrac[i])
-            ) - flextopo.runoff[i] - states + flextopo.states_m[i]
-        #update wb
-        flextopo.wb_tot[i] = wb_tot
-    end
-end
diff --git a/src/flextopo_model.jl b/src/flextopo_model.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 8ea773d63..000000000
--- a/src/flextopo_model.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,739 +0,0 @@
-"""
-    initialize_flextopo_model(config::Config)
-
-Initial part of the FlexTopo model concept. Reads the input settings and data as defined in the
-Config object. Will return a Model that is ready to run.
-"""
-function initialize_flextopo_model(config::Config)
-    # unpack the paths to the netCDF files
-    static_path = input_path(config, config.input.path_static)
-
-    reader = prepare_reader(config)
-    clock = Clock(config, reader)
-    dt = clock.dt
-
-    do_reservoirs = get(config.model, "reservoirs", false)::Bool
-    do_lakes = get(config.model, "lakes", false)::Bool
-    do_pits = get(config.model, "pits", false)::Bool
-
-    kw_river_tstep = get(config.model, "kw_river_tstep", 0)
-    kw_land_tstep = get(config.model, "kw_land_tstep", 0)
-    kinwave_it = get(config.model, "kin_wave_iteration", false)::Bool
-
-    classes = get(config.model, "classes", "")
-    nclass = length(classes)
-    @info "Classes are set to names `$(join(classes,", "))` and have size `$nclass`."
-    kclass = [1]    #needed to initialize
-
-    # dictionary of available functions for each store
-    dic_function = Dict{String,Function}(
-        "common_snow_hbv" => common_snow_hbv,
-        "common_snow_no_storage" => common_snow_no_storage,
-        "common_glaciers" => common_glaciers,
-        "interception_overflow" => interception_overflow,
-        "interception_no_storage" => interception_no_storage,
-        "hortonponding" => hortonponding,
-        "hortonponding_no_storage" => hortonponding_no_storage,
-        "hortonrunoff" => hortonrunoff,
-        "hortonrunoff_no_storage" => hortonrunoff_no_storage,
-        "rootzone_storage" => rootzone_storage,
-        "rootzone_no_storage" => rootzone_no_storage,
-        "fast_no_storage" => fast_no_storage,
-        "fast_storage" => fast_storage,
-        "slow_no_storage" => slow_no_storage,
-        "common_slow_storage" => common_slow_storage,
-    )
-
-    select_snow = get(config.model, "select_snow", ["common_snow_hbv"])
-    select_interception =
-        get(config.model, "select_interception", ["interception_overflow"])
-    select_hortonponding =
-        get(config.model, "select_hortonponding", ["hortonponding_no_storage"])
-    select_hortonrunoff =
-        get(config.model, "select_hortonrunoff", ["hortonrunoff_no_storage"])
-    select_rootzone = get(config.model, "select_rootzone", ["rootzone_storage"])
-    select_fast = get(config.model, "select_fast", ["fast_storage"])
-    select_slow = get(config.model, "select_slow", ["common_slow_storage"])
-
-    nc = NCDataset(static_path)
-
-    subcatch_2d = ncread(nc, config, "subcatchment"; optional = false, allow_missing = true)
-    # indices based on catchment
-    inds, rev_inds = active_indices(subcatch_2d, missing)
-    n = length(inds)
-
-
-    # glacier parameters
-    g_tt = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.g_tt";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    g_cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.0,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    g_sifrac =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_sifrac";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.001,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    glacierfrac = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierfrac";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    glacierstore = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierstore";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 5500.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-
-    #snow param (single class)
-    cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.75653,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    tt = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tt"; sel = inds, defaults = -1.41934, type = Float)
-
-    tti = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tti"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-
-    ttm = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ttm"; sel = inds, defaults = -1.41934, type = Float)
-
-    whc = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.whc"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.1, type = Float)
-
-    cfr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cfr"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.05, type = Float)
-
-    #parameters which are not class specific
-    pcorr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.pcorr"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    ecorr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ecorr"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    rfcf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.rfcf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    sfcf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.sfcf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    ks =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ks"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.006, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    #initialize parameters that differ per class
-    hrufrac = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.hrufrac";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0 / length(classes),
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    imax = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.imax";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 3.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    shmax = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.shmax";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 30.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    khf =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.khf";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.5,
-            type = Float,
-            dimname = :classes,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    facc0 = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.facc0";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = -3.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    facc1 = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.facc1";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    fdec = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.fdec";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.2,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    fmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.fmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 2.0,
-            type = Float,
-            dimname = :classes,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    shmin = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.shmin";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.2,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    kmf = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.kmf";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    srmax = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.srmax";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 260.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    beta = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.beta";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.3,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    lp = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.lp";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.3,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    perc =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.perc";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.30,
-            type = Float,
-            dimname = :classes,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    cap =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.cap";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.20,
-            type = Float,
-            dimname = :classes,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    kf =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.kf";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.1,
-            type = Float,
-            dimname = :classes,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    alfa = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.alfa";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-    ds = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.ds";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.2,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :classes,
-    )
-
-    # read x, y coordinates and calculate cell length [m]
-    y_nc = read_y_axis(nc)
-    x_nc = read_x_axis(nc)
-    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc, outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
-    cellength = abs(mean(diff(x_nc)))
-
-
-    sizeinmetres = get(config.model, "sizeinmetres", false)::Bool
-    xl, yl = cell_lengths(y, cellength, sizeinmetres)
-
-
-    interceptionstorage = zeros(Float, nclass, n)
-    hortonpondingstorage = zeros(Float, nclass, n)
-    hortonrunoffstorage = zeros(Float, nclass, n)
-    srootzone_over_srmax = zeros(Float, nclass, n) .+ 1.0
-
-    states_ = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-
-    potsoilevap = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    intevap = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    precipeffective = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    hortonevap = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    rootevap = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qhortonpond = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qhortonrootzone = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    facc = zeros(Float, nclass, n)
-    qhortonrun = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qrootzone = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qrootzonefast = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qfast = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    actevap = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qpercolation = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    qcapillary = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-
-    wb_interception = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    wb_hortonponding = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    wb_hortonrunoff = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    wb_rootzone = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-    wb_fast = fill(mv, nclass, n)
-
-
-    flextopo = FLEXTOPO{Float,nclass}(
-        dt = Float(tosecond(dt)),
-        nclass = nclass,
-        n = n,
-        dic_function = dic_function,
-        kclass = kclass,
-        classes = classes,
-        select_snow = select_snow,
-        select_interception = select_interception,
-        select_hortonponding = select_hortonponding,
-        select_hortonrunoff = select_hortonrunoff,
-        select_rootzone = select_rootzone,
-        select_fast = select_fast,
-        select_slow = select_slow,
-        hrufrac = svectorscopy(hrufrac, Val{nclass}()),
-        pcorr = pcorr,
-        ecorr = ecorr,
-        #glaciers
-        g_tt = g_tt,
-        g_cfmax = g_cfmax,
-        g_sifrac = g_sifrac,
-        glacierfrac = glacierfrac,
-        glacierstore = glacierstore,
-        # snow
-        tti = tti,
-        tt = tt,
-        ttm = ttm,
-        cfmax = cfmax,
-        whc = whc,
-        cfr = cfr,
-        rfcf = rfcf,
-        sfcf = sfcf,
-        #interception
-        imax = svectorscopy(imax, Val{nclass}()),
-        #horton
-        shmax = svectorscopy(shmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        khf = svectorscopy(khf, Val{nclass}()),
-        facc0 = svectorscopy(facc0, Val{nclass}()),
-        facc1 = svectorscopy(facc1, Val{nclass}()),
-        fdec = svectorscopy(fdec, Val{nclass}()),
-        fmax = svectorscopy(fmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        shmin = svectorscopy(shmin, Val{nclass}()),
-        kmf = svectorscopy(kmf, Val{nclass}()),
-        #root zone
-        srmax = svectorscopy(srmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        lp = svectorscopy(lp, Val{nclass}()),
-        beta = svectorscopy(beta, Val{nclass}()),
-        perc = svectorscopy(perc, Val{nclass}()),
-        cap = svectorscopy(cap, Val{nclass}()),
-        #fast
-        ds = svectorscopy(ds, Val{nclass}()),
-        alfa = svectorscopy(alfa, Val{nclass}()),
-        kf = svectorscopy(kf, Val{nclass}()),
-        #slow
-        ks = ks,
-
-        # # default (cold) states:
-        snow = zeros(Float, n),
-        snowwater = zeros(Float, n),
-        interceptionstorage = svectorscopy(interceptionstorage, Val{nclass}()),
-        hortonpondingstorage = svectorscopy(hortonpondingstorage, Val{nclass}()),
-        hortonrunoffstorage = svectorscopy(hortonrunoffstorage, Val{nclass}()),
-        rootzonestorage = svectorscopy(srmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        faststorage = 0.0 .* svectorscopy(srmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        srootzone_over_srmax = svectorscopy(srootzone_over_srmax, Val{nclass}()),
-        slowstorage = zeros(Float, n) .+ 30.0,
-        #states previous time step
-        states_m = fill(mv, n),
-        states_ = svectorscopy(states_, Val{nclass}()),
-        #states averaged over all classes
-        interceptionstorage_m = zeros(Float, n),
-        hortonpondingstorage_m = zeros(Float, n),
-        hortonrunoffstorage_m = zeros(Float, n),
-        srootzone_m = zeros(Float, n),
-        faststorage_m = zeros(Float, n),
-        srootzone_over_srmax_m = zeros(Float, n),
-
-        # variables:
-        precipitation = fill(mv, n),
-        temperature = fill(mv, n),
-        potential_evaporation = fill(mv, n),
-        epotcorr = fill(mv, n),
-        precipcorr = fill(mv, n),
-        rainfallplusmelt = fill(mv, n),
-        snowfall = fill(mv, n),
-        snowmelt = fill(mv, n),
-        potsoilevap = svectorscopy(potsoilevap, Val{nclass}()),
-        precipeffective = svectorscopy(precipeffective, Val{nclass}()),
-        intevap = svectorscopy(intevap, Val{nclass}()),
-        hortonevap = svectorscopy(hortonevap, Val{nclass}()),
-        rootevap = svectorscopy(rootevap, Val{nclass}()),
-        qhortonpond = svectorscopy(qhortonpond, Val{nclass}()),
-        qhortonrootzone = svectorscopy(qhortonrootzone, Val{nclass}()),
-        facc = svectorscopy(facc, Val{nclass}()),
-        qhortonrun = svectorscopy(qhortonrun, Val{nclass}()),
-        qrootzone = svectorscopy(qrootzone, Val{nclass}()),
-        qrootzonefast = svectorscopy(qrootzonefast, Val{nclass}()),
-        qrootzoneslow_m = fill(mv, n),
-        qfast = svectorscopy(qfast, Val{nclass}()),
-        actevap = svectorscopy(actevap, Val{nclass}()),
-        qpercolation = svectorscopy(qpercolation, Val{nclass}()),
-        qcapillary = svectorscopy(qcapillary, Val{nclass}()),
-        qpercolation_m = fill(mv, n),
-        qcapillary_m = fill(mv, n),
-        # combined for the classes
-        actevap_m = fill(mv, n),
-        intevap_m = fill(mv, n),
-        hortonevap_m = fill(mv, n),
-        rootevap_m = fill(mv, n),
-        qslow = fill(mv, n),
-        qfast_tot = fill(mv, n),
-        runoff = fill(mv, n),
-        wb_snow = fill(mv, n),
-        wb_interception = svectorscopy(wb_interception, Val{nclass}()),
-        wb_hortonponding = svectorscopy(wb_hortonponding, Val{nclass}()),
-        wb_hortonrunoff = svectorscopy(wb_hortonrunoff, Val{nclass}()),
-        wb_rootzone = svectorscopy(wb_rootzone, Val{nclass}()),
-        wb_fast = svectorscopy(wb_fast, Val{nclass}()),
-        wb_slow = fill(mv, n),
-        wb_tot = fill(mv, n),
-    )
-
-    modelsize_2d = size(subcatch_2d)
-    river_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "river_location"; optional = false, type = Bool, fill = false)
-    river = river_2d[inds]
-    riverwidth_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.river.width"; optional = false, type = Float, fill = 0)
-    riverwidth = riverwidth_2d[inds]
-    riverlength_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.river.length"; optional = false, type = Float, fill = 0)
-    riverlength = riverlength_2d[inds]
-
-    inds_riv, rev_inds_riv = active_indices(river_2d, 0)
-    nriv = length(inds_riv)
-
-    # reservoirs
-    pits = zeros(Bool, modelsize_2d)
-    if do_reservoirs
-        reservoirs, resindex, reservoir, pits =
-            initialize_simple_reservoir(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, tosecond(dt))
-    else
-        reservoir = ()
-        reservoirs = nothing
-        resindex = fill(0, nriv)
-    end
-
-    # lakes
-    if do_lakes
-        lakes, lakeindex, lake, pits =
-            initialize_lake(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, tosecond(dt))
-    else
-        lake = ()
-        lakes = nothing
-        lakeindex = fill(0, nriv)
-    end
-
-    ldd_2d = ncread(nc, config, "ldd"; optional = false, allow_missing = true)
-    ldd = ldd_2d[inds]
-    if do_pits
-        pits_2d = ncread(nc, config, "pits"; optional = false, type = Bool, fill = false)
-        ldd = set_pit_ldd(pits_2d, ldd, inds)
-    end
-
-    landslope =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.land.slope"; optional = false, sel = inds, type = Float)
-    clamp!(landslope, 0.00001, Inf)
-
-    dl = map(detdrainlength, ldd, xl, yl)
-    dw = (xl .* yl) ./ dl
-    olf = initialize_surfaceflow_land(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        inds;
-        sl = landslope,
-        dl = dl,
-        width = map(det_surfacewidth, dw, riverwidth, river),
-        iterate = kinwave_it,
-        tstep = kw_land_tstep,
-        dt = dt,
-    )
-
-    graph = flowgraph(ldd, inds, pcr_dir)
-
-    riverlength = riverlength_2d[inds_riv]
-    riverwidth = riverwidth_2d[inds_riv]
-
-    ldd_riv = ldd_2d[inds_riv]
-    if do_pits
-        ldd_riv = set_pit_ldd(pits_2d, ldd_riv, inds_riv)
-    end
-    graph_riv = flowgraph(ldd_riv, inds_riv, pcr_dir)
-
-    # the indices of the river cells in the land(+river) cell vector
-    index_river = filter(i -> !isequal(river[i], 0), 1:n)
-    frac_toriver = fraction_runoff_toriver(graph, ldd, index_river, landslope, n)
-
-    rf = initialize_surfaceflow_river(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        inds_riv;
-        dl = riverlength,
-        width = riverwidth,
-        reservoir_index = resindex,
-        reservoir = reservoirs,
-        lake_index = lakeindex,
-        lake = lakes,
-        iterate = kinwave_it,
-        tstep = kw_river_tstep,
-        dt = dt,
-    )
-
-    # setup subdomains for the land and river kinematic wave domain, if nthreads = 1
-    # subdomain is equal to the complete domain
-    toposort = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph)
-    toposort_riv = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph_riv)
-    index_pit_land = findall(x -> x == 5, ldd)
-    index_pit_river = findall(x -> x == 5, ldd_riv)
-    streamorder = stream_order(graph, toposort)
-    min_streamorder_land = get(config.model, "min_streamorder_land", 5)
-    subbas_order, indices_subbas, topo_subbas = kinwave_set_subdomains(
-        graph,
-        toposort,
-        index_pit_land,
-        streamorder,
-        min_streamorder_land,
-    )
-    min_streamorder_river = get(config.model, "min_streamorder_river", 6)
-    subriv_order, indices_subriv, topo_subriv = kinwave_set_subdomains(
-        graph_riv,
-        toposort_riv,
-        index_pit_river,
-        streamorder[index_river],
-        min_streamorder_river,
-    )
-
-    modelmap = (vertical = flextopo, lateral = (land = olf, river = rf))
-    indices_reverse = (
-        land = rev_inds,
-        river = rev_inds_riv,
-        reservoir = isempty(reservoir) ? nothing : reservoir.reverse_indices,
-        lake = isempty(lake) ? nothing : lake.reverse_indices,
-    )
-
-    # if fews_run = true, then classes are specified as Float64 index so FEWS can import
-    # NetCDF output (3D data/SVector).
-    fews_run = get(config, "fews_run", false)::Bool
-    classes = fews_run ? Float64.(collect(1:length(flextopo.classes))) : flextopo.classes
-
-    writer = prepare_writer(
-        config,
-        modelmap,
-        indices_reverse,
-        x_nc,
-        y_nc,
-        nc,
-        extra_dim = (name = "classes", value = classes),
-    )
-    close(nc)
-
-    # for each domain save:
-    # - the directed acyclic graph (graph),
-    # - the traversion order (order),
-    # - upstream_nodes,
-    # - subdomains for the kinematic wave domains for parallel execution (execution order of
-    #   subbasins (subdomain_order), traversion order per subbasin (topo_subdomain) and
-    #   Vector indices per subbasin matching the traversion order of the complete domain
-    #   (indices_subdomain))
-    # - the indices that map it back to the two dimensional grid (indices)
-
-    # for the land domain the x and y length [m] of the grid cells are stored
-    # for reservoirs and lakes indices information is available from the initialization
-    # functions
-    land = (
-        graph = graph,
-        upstream_nodes = filter_upsteam_nodes(graph, pits[inds]),
-        subdomain_order = subbas_order,
-        topo_subdomain = topo_subbas,
-        indices_subdomain = indices_subbas,
-        order = toposort,
-        indices = inds,
-        reverse_indices = rev_inds,
-        area = xl .* yl,
-    )
-    river = (
-        graph = graph_riv,
-        upstream_nodes = filter_upsteam_nodes(graph_riv, pits[inds_riv]),
-        subdomain_order = subriv_order,
-        topo_subdomain = topo_subriv,
-        indices_subdomain = indices_subriv,
-        order = toposort_riv,
-        indices = inds_riv,
-        reverse_indices = rev_inds_riv,
-    )
-
-    model = Model(
-        config,
-        (; land, river, reservoir, lake, index_river, frac_toriver),
-        (subsurface = nothing, land = olf, river = rf),
-        flextopo,
-        clock,
-        reader,
-        writer,
-        FlextopoModel(),
-    )
-
-    model = set_states(model)
-
-    return model
-end
-
-function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:FlextopoModel}
-    (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
-
-    inds_riv = network.index_river
-
-    #COMMON SNOW
-    vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_snow[1]](vertical)
-
-    #lateral snow transport
-    if get(config.model, "masswasting", false)::Bool
-        lateral_snow_transport!(
-            vertical.snow,
-            vertical.snowwater,
-            lateral.land.sl,
-            network.land,
-        )
-    end
-
-    if get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
-        common_glaciers(vertical, config)
-    end
-
-    for (k, class) in enumerate(vertical.classes)
-        vertical.kclass[1] = k
-
-        #INTERCEPTION
-        vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_interception[k]](vertical)
-
-        #HORTON
-        vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_hortonponding[k]](vertical)
-        vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_hortonrunoff[k]](vertical)
-
-        #ROOT-ZONE
-        vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_rootzone[k]](vertical)
-
-        #FAST
-        vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_fast[k]](vertical)
-
-    end
-
-    #COMMON SLOW
-    vertical.dic_function[vertical.select_slow[1]](vertical)
-
-    # WAT BAL
-    watbal(vertical)
-
-    surface_routing(model)
-
-    return model
-end
-
-function set_states(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:FlextopoModel}
-    (; lateral, config) = model
-    reinit = get(config.model, "reinit", true)::Bool
-    # read and set states in model object if reinit=true
-    if reinit == false
-        instate_path = input_path(config, config.state.path_input)
-        set_states(instate_path, model; type = Float, dimname = :classes)
-
-        # update kinematic wave volume for river and land domain
-        lateral.land.volume .= lateral.land.h .* lateral.land.width .* lateral.land.dl
-        lateral.river.volume .= lateral.river.h .* lateral.river.width .* lateral.river.dl
-
-        if do_lakes
-            # storage must be re-initialized after loading the state with the current
-            # waterlevel otherwise the storage will be based on the initial water level
-            lakes = lateral.river.lake
-            lakes.storage .=
-                initialize_storage(lakes.storfunc, lakes.area, lakes.waterlevel, lakes.sh)
-        end
-    end
-    return model
-end
diff --git a/src/flow.jl b/src/flow.jl
index f7578cc03..dab39db52 100644
--- a/src/flow.jl
+++ b/src/flow.jl
@@ -1,68 +1,60 @@
 
 abstract type SurfaceFlow end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct SurfaceFlowRiver{T,R,L,W} <:
-                                                               SurfaceFlow
-    beta::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"                 # constant in Manning's equation
-    sl::Vector{T} | "m m-1"                      # Slope [m m⁻¹]
-    n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                     # Manning's roughness [s m⁻⅓]
-    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                          # Drain length [m]
-    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                      # Discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    qin::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                    # Inflow from upstream cells [m³ s⁻¹]
-    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                   # Average discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    qlat::Vector{T} | "m2 s-1"                   # Lateral inflow per unit length [m² s⁻¹]
-    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                # Lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
-    inflow::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                 # External inflow (abstraction/supply/demand) [m³ s⁻¹]
-    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"              # inflow waterbody (lake or reservoir model) from land part [m³ s⁻¹]
-    abstraction::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"            # Abstraction (computed as part of water demand and allocation) [m³ s⁻¹]
-    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                     # Kinematic wave volume [m³] (based on water level h)
-    h::Vector{T} | "m"                           # Water level [m]
-    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                        # Average water level [m]
-    bankfull_depth::Vector{T} | "m"              # Bankfull water level [m]
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"            # Model time step [s]
-    its::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"         # Number of fixed iterations
-    width::Vector{T} | "m"                       # Flow width [m]
-    alpha_pow::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"            # Used in the power part of alpha
-    alpha_term::Vector{T} | "-"                  # Term used in computation of alpha
-    alpha::Vector{T} | "s3/5 m1/5"               # Constant in momentum equation A = alpha*Q^beta, based on Manning's equation
-    cel::Vector{T} | "m s-1"                     # Celerity of the kinematic wave
-    reservoir_index::Vector{Int} | "-"           # map cell to 0 (no reservoir) or i (pick reservoir i in reservoir field)
-    lake_index::Vector{Int} | "-"                # map cell to 0 (no lake) or i (pick lake i in lake field)
-    reservoir::R | "-" | 0                       # Reservoir model struct of arrays
-    lake::L | "-" | 0                            # Lake model struct of arrays
-    allocation::W | "-" | 0                      # Water allocation
-    kinwave_it::Bool | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none" # Boolean for iterations kinematic wave
-
-    # TODO unclear why this causes a MethodError
-    # function SurfaceFlow{T,R,L}(args...) where {T,R,L}
-    #     equal_size_vectors(args)
-    #     return new(args...)
-    # end
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SurfaceFlowRiver{T, R, L, A} <: SurfaceFlow
+    beta::T                                 # constant in Manning's equation [-]
+    sl::Vector{T} | "m m-1"                 # Slope [m m⁻¹]
+    n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                # Manning's roughness [s m⁻⅓]
+    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                     # Drain length [m]
+    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                 # Discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    qin::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"               # Inflow from upstream cells [m³ s⁻¹]
+    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"              # Average discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    qlat::Vector{T} | "m2 s-1"              # Lateral inflow per unit length [m² s⁻¹]
+    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"           # Lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
+    inflow::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"            # External inflow (abstraction/supply/demand) [m³ s⁻¹]
+    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"         # inflow waterbody (lake or reservoir model) from land part [m³ s⁻¹]
+    abstraction::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"       # Abstraction (computed as part of water demand and allocation) [m³ s⁻¹]
+    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                # Kinematic wave volume [m³] (based on water level h)
+    h::Vector{T} | "m"                      # Water level [m]
+    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                   # Average water level [m]
+    bankfull_depth::Vector{T} | "m"         # Bankfull water level [m]
+    dt::T                                   # Model time step [s]
+    its::Int                                # Number of fixed iterations [-]
+    width::Vector{T} | "m"                  # Flow width [m]
+    alpha_pow::T                            # Used in the power part of alpha [-]
+    alpha_term::Vector{T} | "-"             # Term used in computation of alpha [-]
+    alpha::Vector{T} | "s3/5 m1/5"          # Constant in momentum equation A = alpha*Q^beta, based on Manning's equation
+    cel::Vector{T} | "m s-1"                # Celerity of the kinematic wave
+    reservoir_index::Vector{Int} | "-"      # map cell to 0 (no reservoir) or i (pick reservoir i in reservoir field)
+    lake_index::Vector{Int} | "-"           # map cell to 0 (no lake) or i (pick lake i in lake field)
+    reservoir::R                            # Reservoir model struct of arrays
+    lake::L                                 # Lake model struct of arrays
+    allocation::A                           # Water allocation
+    kinwave_it::Bool                        # Boolean for iterations kinematic wave
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct SurfaceFlowLand{T} <:
-                                                               SurfaceFlow
-    beta::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"                       # constant in Manning's equation
-    sl::Vector{T} | "m m-1"                         # Slope [m m⁻¹]
-    n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                        # Manning's roughness [s m⁻⅓]
-    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                             # Drain length [m]
-    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                         # Discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    qin::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                       # Inflow from upstream cells [m³ s⁻¹]
-    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                      # Average discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    qlat::Vector{T} | "m2 s-1"                      # Lateral inflow per unit length [m² s⁻¹]
-    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                   # Lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
-    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                        # Kinematic wave volume [m³] (based on water level h)
-    h::Vector{T} | "m"                              # Water level [m]
-    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                           # Average water level [m]
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"               # Model time step [s]
-    its::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"            # Number of fixed iterations
-    width::Vector{T} | "m"                          # Flow width [m]
-    alpha_pow::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"               # Used in the power part of alpha
-    alpha_term::Vector{T} | "-"                     # Term used in computation of alpha
-    alpha::Vector{T} | "s3/5 m1/5"                  # Constant in momentum equation A = alpha * Q^beta, based on Manning's equation
-    cel::Vector{T} | "m s-1"                        # Celerity of the kinematic wave
-    to_river::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                  # Part of overland flow [m³ s⁻¹] that flows to the river
-    kinwave_it::Bool | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"    # Boolean for iterations kinematic wave
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SurfaceFlowLand{T} <: SurfaceFlow
+    beta::T                             # constant in Manning's equation [-]
+    sl::Vector{T} | "m m-1"             # Slope [m m⁻¹]
+    n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"            # Manning's roughness [s m⁻⅓]
+    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                 # Drain length [m]
+    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"             # Discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    qin::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"           # Inflow from upstream cells [m³ s⁻¹]
+    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"          # Average discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    qlat::Vector{T} | "m2 s-1"          # Lateral inflow per unit length [m² s⁻¹]
+    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"       # Lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
+    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"            # Kinematic wave volume [m³] (based on water level h)
+    h::Vector{T} | "m"                  # Water level [m]
+    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"               # Average water level [m]
+    dt::T                               # Model time step [s]
+    its::Int                            # Number of fixed iterations [-]
+    width::Vector{T} | "m"              # Flow width [m]
+    alpha_pow::T                        # Used in the power part of alpha [-]
+    alpha_term::Vector{T} | "-"         # Term used in computation of alpha [-]
+    alpha::Vector{T} | "s3/5 m1/5"      # Constant in momentum equation A = alpha * Q^beta, based on Manning's equation
+    cel::Vector{T} | "m s-1"            # Celerity of the kinematic wave
+    to_river::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"      # Part of overland flow [m³ s⁻¹] that flows to the river
+    kinwave_it::Bool                    # Boolean for iterations kinematic wave [-]
 end
 
 function initialize_surfaceflow_land(nc, config, inds; sl, dl, width, iterate, tstep, dt)
@@ -75,7 +67,7 @@ function initialize_surfaceflow_land(nc, config, inds; sl, dl, width, iterate, t
         ncread(nc, config, "lateral.land.n"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.072, type = Float)
     n = length(inds)
 
-    sf_land = SurfaceFlowLand(
+    sf_land = SurfaceFlowLand(;
         beta = Float(0.6),
         sl = sl,
         n = n_land,
@@ -149,10 +141,9 @@ function initialize_surfaceflow_river(
     clamp!(sl, 0.00001, Inf)
 
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
-
     n = length(inds)
 
-    sf_river = SurfaceFlowRiver(
+    sf_river = SurfaceFlowRiver(;
         beta = Float(0.6),
         sl = sl,
         n = n_river,
@@ -181,16 +172,14 @@ function initialize_surfaceflow_river(
         reservoir = reservoir,
         lake = lake,
         kinwave_it = iterate,
-        allocation = do_water_demand ? initialize_allocation_river(n) : nothing,
+        allocation = do_water_demand ? AllocationRiver(n) : nothing,
     )
 
     return sf_river
 end
 
-
-function update(sf::SurfaceFlowLand, network, frac_toriver)
-    (; subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes) =
-        network
+function update!(sf::SurfaceFlowLand, network, frac_toriver)
+    (; subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes) = network
 
     ns = length(subdomain_order)
 
@@ -204,10 +193,10 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowLand, network, frac_toriver)
     sf.to_river .= 0.0
 
     dt, its = stable_timestep(sf)
-    for _ = 1:its
+    for _ in 1:its
         sf.qin .= 0.0
-        for k = 1:ns
-            threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]), basesize = 1) do i
+        for k in 1:ns
+            threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]); basesize = 1) do i
                 m = subdomain_order[k][i]
                 for (n, v) in zip(indices_subdomain[m], topo_subdomain[m])
                     # for a river cell without a reservoir or lake part of the upstream
@@ -252,12 +241,11 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowLand, network, frac_toriver)
     sf.h_av ./= its
     sf.to_river ./= its
     sf.volume .= sf.dl .* sf.width .* sf.h
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
-
-    (; graph, subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes) =
-        network
+function update!(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
+    (; graph, subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes) = network
 
     ns = length(subdomain_order)
 
@@ -283,10 +271,10 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
     end
 
     dt, its = stable_timestep(sf)
-    for _ = 1:its
+    for _ in 1:its
         sf.qin .= 0.0
-        for k = 1:ns
-            threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]), basesize = 1) do i
+        for k in 1:ns
+            threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]); basesize = 1) do i
                 m = subdomain_order[k][i]
                 for (n, v) in zip(indices_subdomain[m], topo_subdomain[m])
                     # sf.qin by outflow from upstream reservoir or lake location is added
@@ -318,7 +306,7 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
                         # run reservoir model and copy reservoir outflow to inflow (qin) of
                         # downstream river cell
                         i = sf.reservoir_index[v]
-                        update(sf.reservoir, i, sf.q[v] + sf.inflow_wb[v], dt)
+                        update!(sf.reservoir, i, sf.q[v] + sf.inflow_wb[v], dt)
 
                         downstream_nodes = outneighbors(graph, v)
                         n_downstream = length(downstream_nodes)
@@ -339,7 +327,7 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
                         # run lake model and copy lake outflow to inflow (qin) of downstream river
                         # cell
                         i = sf.lake_index[v]
-                        update(sf.lake, i, sf.q[v] + sf.inflow_wb[v], doy, dt)
+                        update!(sf.lake, i, sf.q[v] + sf.inflow_wb[v], doy, dt)
 
                         downstream_nodes = outneighbors(graph, v)
                         n_downstream = length(downstream_nodes)
@@ -361,7 +349,6 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
                     crossarea = sf.alpha[v] * pow(sf.q[v], sf.beta)
                     sf.h[v] = crossarea / sf.width[v]
                     sf.volume[v] = sf.dl[v] * sf.width[v] * sf.h[v]
-
                     sf.q_av[v] += sf.q[v]
                     sf.h_av[v] += sf.h[v]
                 end
@@ -370,9 +357,11 @@ function update(sf::SurfaceFlowRiver, network, doy)
     end
     sf.q_av ./= its
     sf.h_av ./= its
+    sf.volume .= sf.dl .* sf.width .* sf.h
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function stable_timestep(sf::S) where {S<:SurfaceFlow}
+function stable_timestep(sf::S) where {S <: SurfaceFlow}
     n = length(sf.q)
     # two options for iteration, fixed or based on courant number.
     if sf.kinwave_it
@@ -381,7 +370,7 @@ function stable_timestep(sf::S) where {S<:SurfaceFlow}
         else
             # calculate celerity
             courant = zeros(n)
-            for v = 1:n
+            for v in 1:n
                 if sf.q[v] > 0.0
                     sf.cel[v] =
                         1.0 / (sf.alpha[v] * sf.beta * pow(sf.q[v], (sf.beta - 1.0)))
@@ -400,20 +389,38 @@ function stable_timestep(sf::S) where {S<:SurfaceFlow}
     return dt, its
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct LateralSSF{T}
-    kh_0::Vector{T} | "m d-1"               # Horizontal hydraulic conductivity at soil surface [m d⁻¹]
-    f::Vector{T} | "m-1"                   # A scaling parameter [m⁻¹] (controls exponential decline of kh_0)
-    kh::Vector{T} | "m d-1"                # Horizontal hydraulic conductivity [m d⁻¹]
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KhExponential{T}
+    # Horizontal hydraulic conductivity at soil surface [m d⁻¹]
+    kh_0::Vector{T} | "m d-1"
+    # A scaling parameter [m⁻¹] (controls exponential decline of kh_0)
+    f::Vector{T} | "m-1"
+end
+
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KhExponentialConstant{T}
+    # Exponential horizontal hydraulic conductivity profile type
+    exponential::KhExponential
+    # Depth [m] from soil surface for which exponential decline of kv_0 is valid
+    z_exp::Vector{T} | "m"
+end
+
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KhLayered{T}
+    # Horizontal hydraulic conductivity [m d⁻¹]
+    kh::Vector{T} | "m d-1"
+end
+
+abstract type SubsurfaceFlow end
+
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct LateralSSF{T, Kh} <: SubsurfaceFlow
+    kh_profile::Kh                         # Horizontal hydraulic conductivity profile type [-]  
     khfrac::Vector{T} | "-"                # A muliplication factor applied to vertical hydraulic conductivity `kv` [-]
     soilthickness::Vector{T} | "m"         # Soil thickness [m]
     theta_s::Vector{T} | "-"               # Saturated water content (porosity) [-]
     theta_r::Vector{T} | "-"               # Residual water content [-]
-    dt::T | "d" | 0 | "none" | "none"      # model time step [d]
-    slope::Vector{T} | "m m-1"            # Slope [m m⁻¹]
+    dt::T                                  # model time step [d]
+    slope::Vector{T} | "m m-1"             # Slope [m m⁻¹]
     dl::Vector{T} | "m"                    # Drain length [m]
     dw::Vector{T} | "m"                    # Flow width [m]
     zi::Vector{T} | "m"                    # Pseudo-water table depth [m] (top of the saturated zone)
-    z_exp::Vector{T} | "m"                 # Depth [m] from soil surface for which exponential decline of kv_0 is valid
     exfiltwater::Vector{T} | "m dt-1"      # Exfiltration [m Δt⁻¹] (groundwater above surface level, saturated excess conditions)
     recharge::Vector{T} | "m2 dt-1"        # Net recharge to saturated store [m² Δt⁻¹]
     ssf::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"              # Subsurface flow [m³ d⁻¹]
@@ -422,20 +429,18 @@ end
     to_river::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"         # Part of subsurface flow [m³ d⁻¹] that flows to the river
     volume::Vector{T} | "m3"               # Subsurface volume [m³]
 
-    function LateralSSF{T}(args...) where {T}
+    function LateralSSF{T, Kh}(args...) where {T, Kh}
         equal_size_vectors(args)
         return new(args...)
     end
 end
 
-function update(ssf::LateralSSF, network, frac_toriver, ksat_profile)
-    (; subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes, area) =
-        network
-
+function update!(ssf::LateralSSF, network, frac_toriver)
+    (; subdomain_order, topo_subdomain, indices_subdomain, upstream_nodes, area) = network
 
     ns = length(subdomain_order)
-    for k = 1:ns
-        threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]), basesize = 1) do i
+    for k in 1:ns
+        threaded_foreach(eachindex(subdomain_order[k]); basesize = 1) do i
             m = subdomain_order[k][i]
             for (n, v) in zip(indices_subdomain[m], topo_subdomain[m])
                 # for a river cell without a reservoir or lake part of the upstream
@@ -452,42 +457,21 @@ function update(ssf::LateralSSF, network, frac_toriver, ksat_profile)
                     upstream_nodes[n],
                     eltype(ssf.to_river),
                 )
-                if (ksat_profile == "exponential") ||
-                   (ksat_profile == "exponential_constant")
-                    ssf.ssf[v], ssf.zi[v], ssf.exfiltwater[v] = kinematic_wave_ssf(
-                        ssf.ssfin[v],
-                        ssf.ssf[v],
-                        ssf.zi[v],
-                        ssf.recharge[v],
-                        ssf.kh_0[v],
-                        ssf.slope[v],
-                        ssf.theta_s[v] - ssf.theta_r[v],
-                        ssf.f[v],
-                        ssf.soilthickness[v],
-                        ssf.dt,
-                        ssf.dl[v],
-                        ssf.dw[v],
-                        ssf.ssfmax[v],
-                        ssf.z_exp[v],
-                        ksat_profile,
-                    )
-                elseif (ksat_profile == "layered") ||
-                       (ksat_profile == "layered_exponential")
-                    ssf.ssf[v], ssf.zi[v], ssf.exfiltwater[v] = kinematic_wave_ssf(
-                        ssf.ssfin[v],
-                        ssf.ssf[v],
-                        ssf.zi[v],
-                        ssf.recharge[v],
-                        ssf.kh[v],
-                        ssf.slope[v],
-                        ssf.theta_s[v] - ssf.theta_r[v],
-                        ssf.soilthickness[v],
-                        ssf.dt,
-                        ssf.dl[v],
-                        ssf.dw[v],
-                        ssf.ssfmax[v],
-                    )
-                end
+                ssf.ssf[v], ssf.zi[v], ssf.exfiltwater[v] = kinematic_wave_ssf(
+                    ssf.ssfin[v],
+                    ssf.ssf[v],
+                    ssf.zi[v],
+                    ssf.recharge[v],
+                    ssf.slope[v],
+                    ssf.theta_s[v] - ssf.theta_r[v],
+                    ssf.soilthickness[v],
+                    ssf.dt,
+                    ssf.dl[v],
+                    ssf.dw[v],
+                    ssf.ssfmax[v],
+                    ssf.kh_profile,
+                    v,
+                )
                 ssf.volume[v] =
                     (ssf.theta_s[v] - ssf.theta_r[v]) *
                     (ssf.soilthickness[v] - ssf.zi[v]) *
@@ -495,61 +479,65 @@ function update(ssf::LateralSSF, network, frac_toriver, ksat_profile)
             end
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct GroundwaterExchange{T}
-    dt::T | "d" | 0 | "none" | "none"   # model time step [d]
+@get_units@grid_loc @with_kw struct GroundwaterExchange{T} <: SubsurfaceFlow
+    dt::T                               # model time step [d]
     exfiltwater::Vector{T} | "m dt-1"   # Exfiltration [m Δt⁻¹]  (groundwater above surface level, saturated excess conditions)
     zi::Vector{T} | "m"                 # Pseudo-water table depth [m] (top of the saturated zone)
     to_river::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"      # Part of subsurface flow [m³ d⁻¹] that flows to the river
     ssf::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"           # Subsurface flow [m³ d⁻¹]
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct ShallowWaterRiver{T,R,L,F,W}
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"                      # number of cells
-    ne::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"                     # number of edges/links
-    active_n::Vector{Int} | "-"                             # active nodes
-    active_e::Vector{Int} | "-" | _ | "edge"                # active edges/links
-    g::T | "m s-2" | 0 | "scalar"                           # acceleration due to gravity
-    alpha::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"                           # stability coefficient (Bates et al., 2010)
-    h_thresh::T | "m" | 0 | "scalar"                        # depth threshold for calculating flow
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"                       # model time step [s]
-    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                    # river discharge (subgrid channel)
-    q0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                   # river discharge (subgrid channel) at previous time step
-    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                 # average river channel (+ floodplain) discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    q_channel_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                      # average river channel discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
-    zb_max::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # maximum channel bed elevation
-    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | _ | "edge"    # Manning's roughness squared at edge/link
-    mannings_n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                       # Manning's roughness at node
-    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                      # water depth
-    zs_max::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # maximum water elevation at edge
-    zs_src::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # water elevation of source node of edge
-    zs_dst::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # water elevation of downstream node of edge
-    hf::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                        # water depth at edge/link
-    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                                   # average water depth
-    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                                     # river length
-    dl_at_link::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                # river length at edge/link
-    width::Vector{T} | "m"                                  # river width
-    width_at_link::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"             # river width at edge/link
-    a::Vector{T} | "m2" | _ | "edge"                        # flow area at edge/link
-    r::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                         # wetted perimeter at edge/link
-    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                                # river volume
-    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                                 # error volume
-    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                           # lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
-    inflow::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                            # external inflow (abstraction/supply/demand) [m³ s⁻¹]
-    abstraction::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                       # abstraction (computed as part of water demand and allocation) [m³ s⁻¹]
-    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                         # inflow waterbody (lake or reservoir model) from land part [m³ s⁻¹]
-    bankfull_volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                       # bankfull volume
-    bankfull_depth::Vector{T} | "m"                         # bankfull depth
-    zb::Vector{T} | "m"                                     # river bed elevation
-    froude_limit::Bool | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"          # if true a check is performed if froude number > 1.0 (algorithm is modified)
-    reservoir_index::Vector{Int} | "-" | 0                  # river cell index with a reservoir (each index of reservoir_index maps to reservoir i in reservoir field)
-    lake_index::Vector{Int} | "-" | 0                       # river cell index with a lake (each index of lake_index maps to lake i in lake field)
-    waterbody::Vector{Bool} | "-"                           # water body cells (reservoir or lake)
-    reservoir::R | "-" | 0                                  # Reservoir model struct of arrays
-    lake::L | "-" | 0                                       # Lake model struct of arrays
-    floodplain::F | "-" | 0                                 # Floodplain (1D) schematization
-    allocation::W | "-" | 0                                 # Water allocation
+get_water_depth(subsurface::SubsurfaceFlow) = subsurface.zi
+get_exfiltwater(subsurface::SubsurfaceFlow) = subsurface.exfiltwater
+
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct ShallowWaterRiver{T, R, L, F, A}
+    n::Int                                              # number of cells [-]
+    ne::Int                                             # number of edges/links [-]
+    active_n::Vector{Int} | "-"                         # active nodes [-]
+    active_e::Vector{Int} | "-" | "edge"                # active edges/links [-]
+    g::T                                                # acceleration due to gravity [m s⁻²]
+    alpha::T                                            # stability coefficient (Bates et al., 2010) [-]
+    h_thresh::T                                         # depth threshold for calculating flow [m]
+    dt::T                                               # model time step [s]
+    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                    # river discharge (subgrid channel)
+    q0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                   # river discharge (subgrid channel) at previous time step
+    q_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                 # average river channel (+ floodplain) discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    q_channel_av::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                  # average river channel discharge [m³ s⁻¹]
+    zb_max::Vector{T} | "m"                             # maximum channel bed elevation
+    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | "edge"    # Manning's roughness squared at edge/link
+    mannings_n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                   # Manning's roughness at node
+    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                  # water depth
+    zs_max::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # maximum water elevation at edge
+    zs_src::Vector{T} | "m"                             # water elevation of source node of edge
+    zs_dst::Vector{T} | "m"                             # water elevation of downstream node of edge
+    hf::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                        # water depth at edge/link
+    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                               # average water depth
+    dl::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # river length
+    dl_at_link::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                # river length at edge/link
+    width::Vector{T} | "m"                              # river width
+    width_at_link::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"             # river width at edge/link
+    a::Vector{T} | "m2" | "edge"                        # flow area at edge/link
+    r::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                         # wetted perimeter at edge/link
+    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                            # river volume
+    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                             # error volume
+    inwater::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                       # lateral inflow [m³ s⁻¹]
+    inflow::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                        # external inflow (abstraction/supply/demand) [m³ s⁻¹]
+    abstraction::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                   # abstraction (computed as part of water demand and allocation) [m³ s⁻¹]
+    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                     # inflow waterbody (lake or reservoir model) from land part [m³ s⁻¹]
+    bankfull_volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                   # bankfull volume
+    bankfull_depth::Vector{T} | "m"                     # bankfull depth
+    zb::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # river bed elevation
+    froude_limit::Bool                                  # if true a check is performed if froude number > 1.0 (algorithm is modified) [-]
+    reservoir_index::Vector{Int} | "-"                  # river cell index with a reservoir (each index of reservoir_index maps to reservoir i in reservoir field)
+    lake_index::Vector{Int} | "-"                       # river cell index with a lake (each index of lake_index maps to lake i in lake field)
+    waterbody::Vector{Bool} | "-"                       # water body cells (reservoir or lake)
+    reservoir::R                                        # Reservoir model struct of arrays
+    lake::L                                             # Lake model struct of arrays
+    floodplain::F                                       # Floodplain (1D) schematization
+    allocation::A                                       # Water allocation
 end
 
 function initialize_shallowwater_river(
@@ -672,7 +660,7 @@ function initialize_shallowwater_river(
     width_at_link = fill(Float(0), _ne)
     length_at_link = fill(Float(0), _ne)
     mannings_n_sq = fill(Float(0), _ne)
-    for i = 1:_ne
+    for i in 1:_ne
         src_node = nodes_at_link.src[i]
         dst_node = nodes_at_link.dst[i]
         zb_max[i] = max(zb[src_node], zb[dst_node])
@@ -689,7 +677,7 @@ function initialize_shallowwater_river(
     active_index = findall(x -> x == 0, waterbody)
 
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
-    sw_river = ShallowWaterRiver(
+    sw_river = ShallowWaterRiver(;
         n = n,
         ne = _ne,
         active_n = active_index,
@@ -747,8 +735,7 @@ function get_inflow_waterbody(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, src_edge)
     return q_in
 end
 
-function shallowwater_river_update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, update_h)
-
+function shallowwater_river_update!(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, update_h)
     (; nodes_at_link, links_at_node) = network
 
     sw.q0 .= sw.q
@@ -805,7 +792,7 @@ function shallowwater_river_update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, upda
             end
         end
 
-        @tturbo for j = 1:n
+        @tturbo for j in 1:n
             i = sw.floodplain.hf_index[j]
             i_src = nodes_at_link.src[i]
             i_dst = nodes_at_link.dst[i]
@@ -891,7 +878,7 @@ function shallowwater_river_update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, upda
         i = sw.reservoir_index[v]
 
         q_in = get_inflow_waterbody(sw, links_at_node.src[i])
-        update(sw.reservoir, v, q_in + sw.inflow_wb[i], dt)
+        update!(sw.reservoir, v, q_in + sw.inflow_wb[i], dt)
         sw.q[i] = sw.reservoir.outflow[v]
         sw.q_av[i] += sw.q[i] * dt
     end
@@ -899,13 +886,12 @@ function shallowwater_river_update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, upda
         i = sw.lake_index[v]
 
         q_in = get_inflow_waterbody(sw, links_at_node.src[i])
-        update(sw.lake, v, q_in + sw.inflow_wb[i], doy, dt)
+        update!(sw.lake, v, q_in + sw.inflow_wb[i], doy, dt)
         sw.q[i] = sw.lake.outflow[v]
         sw.q_av[i] += sw.q[i] * dt
     end
     if update_h
         @batch per = thread minbatch = 2000 for i in sw.active_n
-
             q_src = sum_at(sw.q, links_at_node.src[i])
             q_dst = sum_at(sw.q, links_at_node.dst[i])
             sw.volume[i] =
@@ -949,9 +935,10 @@ function shallowwater_river_update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver, network, dt, doy, upda
             sw.h_av[i] += sw.h[i] * dt
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver{T}, network, doy; update_h = true) where {T}
+function update!(sw::ShallowWaterRiver{T}, network, doy; update_h = true) where {T}
     if !isnothing(sw.reservoir)
         sw.reservoir.inflow .= 0.0
         sw.reservoir.totaloutflow .= 0.0
@@ -975,7 +962,7 @@ function update(sw::ShallowWaterRiver{T}, network, doy; update_h = true) where {
         if t + dt > sw.dt
             dt = sw.dt - t
         end
-        shallowwater_river_update(sw, network, dt, doy, update_h)
+        shallowwater_river_update!(sw, network, dt, doy, update_h)
         t = t + dt
     end
     sw.q_av ./= sw.dt
@@ -1004,33 +991,33 @@ end
 # neigbors.
 const dirs = (:yd, :xd, :xu, :yu)
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct ShallowWaterLand{T}
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"                      # number of cells
-    xl::Vector{T} | "m"                                     # cell length x direction
-    yl::Vector{T} | "m"                                     # cell length y direction
-    xwidth::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # effective flow width x direction (floodplain)
-    ywidth::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # effective flow width y direction (floodplain)
-    g::T | "m2 s-1" | 0 | "scalar"                          # acceleration due to gravity
-    theta::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"                           # weighting factor (de Almeida et al., 2012)
-    alpha::T | "-" | 0 | "scalar"                           # stability coefficient (de Almeida et al., 2012)
-    h_thresh::T | "m" | 0 | "scalar"                        # depth threshold for calculating flow
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"                       # model time step [s]
-    qy0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                  # flow in y direction at previous time step
-    qx0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                  # flow in x direction at previous time step
-    qx::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                   # flow in x direction
-    qy::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                   # flow in y direction
-    zx_max::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # maximum cell elevation (x direction)
-    zy_max::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # maximum cell elevation (y direction)
-    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | _ | "edge"    # Manning's roughness squared
-    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                                # total volume of cell (including river volume for river cells)
-    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                                 # error volume
-    runoff::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                            # runoff from hydrological model
-    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                         # inflow to water body from hydrological model
-    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                      # water depth of cell (for river cells the reference is the river bed elevation `zb`)
-    z::Vector{T} | "m"                                      # elevation of cell
-    froude_limit::Bool | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"          # if true a check is performed if froude number > 1.0 (algorithm is modified)
-    rivercells::Vector{Bool} | "-"                          # river cells
-    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                                   # average water depth (for river cells the reference is the river bed elevation `zb`)
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct ShallowWaterLand{T}
+    n::Int                                              # number of cells [-]
+    xl::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # cell length x direction [m]
+    yl::Vector{T} | "m"                                 # cell length y direction [m]
+    xwidth::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # effective flow width x direction (floodplain) [m]
+    ywidth::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # effective flow width y direction (floodplain) [m]
+    g::T                                                # acceleration due to gravity [m s⁻²]
+    theta::T                                            # weighting factor (de Almeida et al., 2012) [-]
+    alpha::T                                            # stability coefficient (de Almeida et al., 2012) [-]
+    h_thresh::T                                         # depth threshold for calculating flow [m]
+    dt::T                                               # model time step [s]
+    qy0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                  # flow in y direction at previous time step
+    qx0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                  # flow in x direction at previous time step
+    qx::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                   # flow in x direction
+    qy::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                   # flow in y direction
+    zx_max::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # maximum cell elevation (x direction)
+    zy_max::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # maximum cell elevation (y direction)
+    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | "edge"    # Manning's roughness squared
+    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                            # total volume of cell (including river volume for river cells)
+    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                             # error volume
+    runoff::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                        # runoff from hydrological model
+    inflow_wb::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                     # inflow to water body from hydrological model
+    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                  # water depth of cell (for river cells the reference is the river bed elevation `zb`)
+    z::Vector{T} | "m"                                  # elevation of cell
+    froude_limit::Bool                                  # if true a check is performed if froude number > 1.0 (algorithm is modified) [-]
+    rivercells::Vector{Bool} | "-"                      # river cells
+    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                               # average water depth (for river cells the reference is the river bed elevation `zb`)
 end
 
 function initialize_shallowwater_land(
@@ -1070,7 +1057,7 @@ function initialize_shallowwater_land(
     n = length(inds)
 
     # initialize links between cells in x and y direction.
-    indices = Indices(xu = zeros(n), xd = zeros(n), yu = zeros(n), yd = zeros(n))
+    indices = Indices(; xu = zeros(n), xd = zeros(n), yu = zeros(n), yd = zeros(n))
 
     # links without neigbors are handled by an extra index (at n + 1, with n links), which
     # is set to a value of 0.0 m³ s⁻¹ for qx and qy fields at initialization.
@@ -1094,7 +1081,7 @@ function initialize_shallowwater_land(
     # determine z at links in x and y direction
     zx_max = fill(Float(0), n)
     zy_max = fill(Float(0), n)
-    for i = 1:n
+    for i in 1:n
         xu = indices.xu[i]
         if xu <= n
             zx_max[i] = max(elevation[i], elevation[xu])
@@ -1121,7 +1108,7 @@ function initialize_shallowwater_land(
         indices_reverse[inds_riv],
     )
 
-    sw_land = ShallowWaterLand{Float}(
+    sw_land = ShallowWaterLand{Float}(;
         n = n,
         xl = xlength,
         yl = ylength,
@@ -1163,7 +1150,7 @@ dt = alpha * (Δx / sqrt(g max(h))
 """
 function stable_timestep(sw::ShallowWaterRiver{T})::T where {T}
     dt_min = T(Inf)
-    @batch per = thread reduction = ((min, dt_min),) for i = 1:sw.n
+    @batch per = thread reduction = ((min, dt_min),) for i in 1:(sw.n)
         @fastmath @inbounds dt = sw.alpha * sw.dl[i] / sqrt(sw.g * sw.h[i])
         dt_min = min(dt, dt_min)
     end
@@ -1173,23 +1160,27 @@ end
 
 function stable_timestep(sw::ShallowWaterLand{T})::T where {T}
     dt_min = T(Inf)
-    @batch per = thread reduction = ((min, dt_min),) for i = 1:sw.n
-        @fastmath @inbounds dt =
-            sw.rivercells[i] == 0 ?
-            sw.alpha * min(sw.xl[i], sw.yl[i]) / sqrt(sw.g * sw.h[i]) : T(Inf)
+    @batch per = thread reduction = ((min, dt_min),) for i in 1:(sw.n)
+        @fastmath @inbounds dt = if sw.rivercells[i] == 0
+            sw.alpha * min(sw.xl[i], sw.yl[i]) / sqrt(sw.g * sw.h[i])
+        else
+            T(Inf)
+        end
         dt_min = min(dt, dt_min)
     end
     dt_min = isinf(dt_min) ? T(10.0) : dt_min
     return dt_min
 end
 
-function update(
+function update!(
     sw::ShallowWaterLand{T},
     swr::ShallowWaterRiver{T},
     network,
     doy;
     update_h = false,
 ) where {T}
+    (; nodes_at_link, links_at_node) = network.river
+
     if !isnothing(swr.reservoir)
         swr.reservoir.inflow .= 0.0
         swr.reservoir.totaloutflow .= 0.0
@@ -1212,22 +1203,23 @@ function update(
         if t + dt > swr.dt
             dt = swr.dt - t
         end
-        shallowwater_river_update(swr, network.river, dt, doy, update_h)
-        shallowwater_update(sw, swr, network, dt)
+        shallowwater_river_update!(swr, network.river, dt, doy, update_h)
+        shallowwater_update!(sw, swr, network, dt)
         t = t + dt
     end
     swr.q_av ./= swr.dt
     swr.h_av ./= swr.dt
     sw.h_av ./= sw.dt
+
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function shallowwater_update(
+function shallowwater_update!(
     sw::ShallowWaterLand{T},
     swr::ShallowWaterRiver{T},
     network,
     dt,
 ) where {T}
-
     indices = network.land.staggered_indices
     inds_riv = network.land.index_river
 
@@ -1237,7 +1229,7 @@ function shallowwater_update(
     sw.qy0 .= sw.qy
 
     # update qx
-    @batch per = thread minbatch = 6000 for i = 1:sw.n
+    @batch per = thread minbatch = 6000 for i in 1:(sw.n)
         yu = indices.yu[i]
         yd = indices.yd[i]
         xu = indices.xu[i]
@@ -1246,7 +1238,6 @@ function shallowwater_update(
         # the effective flow width is zero when the river width exceeds the cell width (dy
         # for flow in x dir) and floodplain flow is not calculated.
         if xu <= sw.n && sw.ywidth[i] != T(0.0)
-
             zs_x = sw.z[i] + sw.h[i]
             zs_xu = sw.z[xu] + sw.h[xu]
             zs_max = max(zs_x, zs_xu)
@@ -1286,7 +1277,6 @@ function shallowwater_update(
         # the effective flow width is zero when the river width exceeds the cell width (dx
         # for flow in y dir) and floodplain flow is not calculated.
         if yu <= sw.n && sw.xwidth[i] != T(0.0)
-
             zs_y = sw.z[i] + sw.h[i]
             zs_yu = sw.z[yu] + sw.h[yu]
             zs_max = max(zs_y, zs_yu)
@@ -1323,7 +1313,7 @@ function shallowwater_update(
     end
 
     # change in volume and water levels based on horizontal fluxes for river and land cells
-    @batch per = thread minbatch = 6000 for i = 1:sw.n
+    @batch per = thread minbatch = 6000 for i in 1:(sw.n)
         yd = indices.yd[i]
         xd = indices.xd[i]
 
@@ -1375,6 +1365,7 @@ function shallowwater_update(
         end
         sw.h_av[i] += sw.h[i] * dt
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -1384,35 +1375,35 @@ Floodplain `volume` is a function of `depth` (flood depth intervals). Based on t
 cumulative floodplain `volume` a floodplain profile as a function of `flood_depth` is
 derived with floodplain area `a` (cumulative) and wetted perimeter radius `p` (cumulative).
 """
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct FloodPlainProfile{T,N}
-    depth::Vector{T} | "m" | 0                # Flood depth
-    volume::Array{T,2} | "m3"                 # Flood volume (cumulative)
-    width::Array{T,2} | "m"                   # Flood width
-    a::Array{T,2} | "m2"                      # Flow area (cumulative)
-    p::Array{T,2} | "m"                       # Wetted perimeter (cumulative)
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct FloodPlainProfile{T, N}
+    depth::Vector{T} | "m"                     # Flood depth
+    volume::Array{T, 2} | "m3"                 # Flood volume (cumulative)
+    width::Array{T, 2} | "m"                   # Flood width
+    a::Array{T, 2} | "m2"                      # Flow area (cumulative)
+    p::Array{T, 2} | "m"                       # Wetted perimeter (cumulative)
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct FloodPlain{T,P}
-    profile::P | "-" | 0                                    # floodplain profile
-    mannings_n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                       # manning's roughness
-    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | _ | "edge"    # manning's roughness squared
-    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                                # volume
-    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                      # water depth
-    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                                   # average water depth
-    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                                 # error volume
-    a::Vector{T} | "m2" | _ | "edge"                        # flow area
-    r::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                         # hydraulic radius
-    hf::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                        # water depth at edge/link
-    zb_max::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                    # maximum bankfull elevation (edge/link)
-    q0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                   # discharge at previous time step
-    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | _ | "edge"                    # discharge
-    q_av::Vector{T} | "m" | _ | "edge"                      # average river discharge
-    hf_index::Vector{Int} | "-" | _ | "edge"                # index with `hf` above depth threshold
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct FloodPlain{T, P}
+    profile::P                                         # floodplain profile
+    mannings_n::Vector{T} | "s m-1/3"                   # manning's roughness
+    mannings_n_sq::Vector{T} | "(s m-1/3)2" | "edge"    # manning's roughness squared
+    volume::Vector{T} | "m3"                            # volume
+    h::Vector{T} | "m"                                  # water depth
+    h_av::Vector{T} | "m"                               # average water depth
+    error::Vector{T} | "m3"                             # error volume
+    a::Vector{T} | "m2" | "edge"                        # flow area
+    r::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                         # hydraulic radius
+    hf::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                        # water depth at edge/link
+    zb_max::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                    # maximum bankfull elevation (edge/link)
+    q0::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                   # discharge at previous time step
+    q::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1" | "edge"                    # discharge
+    q_av::Vector{T} | "m" | "edge"                      # average river discharge
+    hf_index::Vector{Int} | "-" | "edge"                # index with `hf` above depth threshold
 end
 
 "Determine the initial floodplain volume"
 function initialize_volume!(river, nriv::Int)
-    for i = 1:nriv
+    for i in 1:nriv
         i1, i2 =
             interpolation_indices(river.floodplain.h[i], river.floodplain.profile.depth)
         a = flow_area(
@@ -1488,7 +1479,6 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
     n_edges,
     nodes_at_link,
 )
-
     n_floodplain = ncread(
         nc,
         config,
@@ -1526,31 +1516,32 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
     incorrect_vol = 0
     riv_cells = 0
     error_vol = 0
-    for i = 1:n
+    for i in 1:n
         riv_cell = 0
         diff_volume = diff(volume[:, i])
 
-        for j = 1:(n_depths-1)
+        for j in 1:(n_depths - 1)
             # assume rectangular shape of flood depth segment
-            width[j+1, i] = diff_volume[j] / (h[j] * riverlength[i])
+            width[j + 1, i] = diff_volume[j] / (h[j] * riverlength[i])
             # check provided flood volume (floodplain width should be constant or increasing
             # as a function of flood depth)
-            if width[j+1, i] < width[j, i]
+            if width[j + 1, i] < width[j, i]
                 # raise warning only if difference is larger than rounding error of 0.01 m³
-                if ((width[j, i] - width[j+1, i]) * h[j] * riverlength[i]) > 0.01
+                if ((width[j, i] - width[j + 1, i]) * h[j] * riverlength[i]) > 0.01
                     incorrect_vol += 1
                     riv_cell = 1
                     error_vol =
-                        error_vol + ((width[j, i] - width[j+1, i]) * h[j] * riverlength[i])
+                        error_vol +
+                        ((width[j, i] - width[j + 1, i]) * h[j] * riverlength[i])
                 end
-                width[j+1, i] = width[j, i]
+                width[j + 1, i] = width[j, i]
             end
-            a[j+1, i] = width[j+1, i] * h[j]
-            p[j+1, i] = (width[j+1, i] - width[j, i]) + 2.0 * h[j]
-            segment_volume[j+1, i] = a[j+1, i] * riverlength[i]
+            a[j + 1, i] = width[j + 1, i] * h[j]
+            p[j + 1, i] = (width[j + 1, i] - width[j, i]) + 2.0 * h[j]
+            segment_volume[j + 1, i] = a[j + 1, i] * riverlength[i]
             if j == 1
                 # for interpolation wetted perimeter at flood depth 0.0 is required
-                p[j, i] = p[j+1, i] - 2.0 * h[j]
+                p[j, i] = p[j + 1, i] - 2.0 * h[j]
             end
         end
 
@@ -1562,8 +1553,8 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
     end
 
     if incorrect_vol > 0
-        perc_riv_cells = round(100.0 * (riv_cells / n), digits = 2)
-        perc_error_vol = round(100.0 * (error_vol / sum(start_volume[end, :])), digits = 2)
+        perc_riv_cells = round(100.0 * (riv_cells / n); digits = 2)
+        perc_error_vol = round(100.0 * (error_vol / sum(start_volume[end, :])); digits = 2)
         @warn string(
             "The provided volume of $incorrect_vol rectangular floodplain schematization",
             " segments for $riv_cells river cells ($perc_riv_cells % of total river cells)",
@@ -1578,7 +1569,7 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
     p = hcat(p, p[:, index_pit])
 
     # initialize floodplain profile parameters
-    profile = FloodPlainProfile{Float,n_depths}(
+    profile = FloodPlainProfile{Float, n_depths}(;
         volume = volume,
         width = width,
         depth = flood_depths,
@@ -1590,7 +1581,7 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
     append!(n_floodplain, n_floodplain[index_pit]) # copy to ghost nodes
     mannings_n_sq = fill(Float(0), n_edges)
     zb_max = fill(Float(0), n_edges)
-    for i = 1:n_edges
+    for i in 1:n_edges
         src_node = nodes_at_link.src[i]
         dst_node = nodes_at_link.dst[i]
         mannings_n =
@@ -1602,7 +1593,7 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
         zb_max[i] = max(zb[src_node], zb[dst_node])
     end
 
-    floodplain = FloodPlain(
+    floodplain = FloodPlain(;
         profile = profile,
         mannings_n = n_floodplain,
         mannings_n_sq = mannings_n_sq,
@@ -1623,16 +1614,14 @@ function initialize_floodplain_1d(
 end
 
 """
-    set_river_inwater(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}, ssf_toriver) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:Union{SbmModel,SbmGwfModel}}
+    set_river_inwater!(model::Model, ssf_toriver)
 
-Set `inwater` of the lateral river component for a `Model` of type `SbmModel` or `SbmGwfModel`.
-`ssf_toriver` is the subsurface flow to the river.
+Set `inwater` of the lateral river component for a `Model`. `ssf_toriver` is the subsurface
+flow to the river.
 """
-function set_river_inwater(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-    ssf_toriver,
-) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:Union{SbmModel,SbmGwfModel}}
+function set_river_inwater!(model::Model, ssf_toriver)
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
+    (; net_runoff_river) = vertical.runoff.variables
     inds = network.index_river
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
     if do_water_demand
@@ -1640,86 +1629,73 @@ function set_river_inwater(
             ssf_toriver[inds] +
             lateral.land.to_river[inds] +
             # net_runoff_river
-            (vertical.net_runoff_river[inds] * network.land.area[inds] * 0.001) /
-            vertical.dt +
-            (lateral.river.allocation.nonirri_returnflow * 0.001 * network.river.area) /
-            vertical.dt
+            (net_runoff_river[inds] * network.land.area[inds] * 0.001) / vertical.dt +
+            (
+                lateral.river.allocation.variables.nonirri_returnflow *
+                0.001 *
+                network.river.area
+            ) / vertical.dt
         )
     else
         @. lateral.river.inwater = (
             ssf_toriver[inds] +
             lateral.land.to_river[inds] +
             # net_runoff_river
-            (vertical.net_runoff_river[inds] * network.land.area[inds] * 0.001) /
-            vertical.dt
+            (net_runoff_river[inds] * network.land.area[inds] * 0.001) / vertical.dt
         )
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    set_river_inwater(model, ssf_toriver)
-
-Set `inwater` of the lateral river component (based on overland flow).
-"""
-function set_river_inwater(model, ssf_toriver)
-    (; lateral, network) = model
-    inds = network.index_river
-    lateral.river.inwater .= lateral.land.to_river[inds]
-end
-
-"""
-    set_land_inwater(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmGwfModel}
+    set_land_inwater!(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmGwfModel}
 
 Set `inwater` of the lateral land component for the `SbmGwfModel` type.
 """
-function set_land_inwater(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmGwfModel}
+function set_land_inwater!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmGwfModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
-    do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
+    (; net_runoff) = vertical.soil.variables
     do_drains = get(config.model, "drains", false)::Bool
-    drainflux = zeros(vertical.n)
+    drainflux = zeros(length(net_runoff))
+    do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
     if do_drains
         drainflux[lateral.subsurface.drain.index] =
             -lateral.subsurface.drain.flux ./ tosecond(basetimestep)
     end
     if do_water_demand
         @. lateral.land.inwater =
-            (vertical.net_runoff + vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow) *
+            (net_runoff + vertical.allocation.variables.nonirri_returnflow) *
             network.land.area *
             0.001 / lateral.land.dt + drainflux
     else
         @. lateral.land.inwater =
-            (vertical.net_runoff * network.land.area * 0.001) / lateral.land.dt + drainflux
+            (net_runoff * network.land.area * 0.001) / lateral.land.dt + drainflux
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    set_land_inwater(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+    set_land_inwater!(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
 
 Set `inwater` of the lateral land component for the `SbmModel` type.
 """
-function set_land_inwater(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+function set_land_inwater!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
+    (; net_runoff) = vertical.soil.variables
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
     if do_water_demand
         @. lateral.land.inwater =
-            (vertical.net_runoff + vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow) *
+            (net_runoff + vertical.allocation.variables.nonirri_returnflow) *
             network.land.area *
             0.001 / lateral.land.dt
     else
-        @. lateral.land.inwater =
-            (vertical.net_runoff * network.land.area * 0.001) / lateral.land.dt
+        @. lateral.land.inwater = (net_runoff * network.land.area * 0.001) / lateral.land.dt
     end
-end
-
-"""
-    set_land_inwater(model)
-
-Set `inwater` of the lateral land component, based on `runoff` of the `vertical` concept.
-"""
-function set_land_inwater(model)
-    (; lateral, vertical, network) = model
-    @. lateral.land.inwater =
-        (vertical.runoff * network.land.area * 0.001) / lateral.land.dt
+    return nothing
 end
 
 # Computation of inflow from the lateral components `land` and `subsurface` to water bodies
@@ -1731,16 +1707,16 @@ end
 # (Darcian flow in 4 directions), the lateral subsurface flow is excluded (for now) and
 # inflow consists of overland flow.
 """
-    set_inflow_waterbody(
+    set_inflow_waterbody!(
         model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
     ) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,SurfaceFlow,SurfaceFlow}},V,R,W,T}
 
 Set inflow from the subsurface and land components to a water body (reservoir or lake)
 `inflow_wb` from a model type that contains the lateral components `SurfaceFlow`.
 """
-function set_inflow_waterbody(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,SurfaceFlow,SurfaceFlow}},V,R,W,T}
+function set_inflow_waterbody!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L <: NamedTuple{<:Any, <:Tuple{Any, SurfaceFlow, SurfaceFlow}}, V, R, W, T}
     (; lateral, network) = model
     (; subsurface, land, river) = lateral
     inds = network.index_river
@@ -1753,10 +1729,11 @@ function set_inflow_waterbody(
             river.inflow_wb .= land.q_av[inds]
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    set_inflow_waterbody(
+    set_inflow_waterbody!(
         model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
     ) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,SurfaceFlow,ShallowWaterRiver}},V,R,W,T}
 
@@ -1764,9 +1741,16 @@ Set inflow from the subsurface and land components to a water body (reservoir or
 `inflow_wb` from a model type that contains the lateral components `SurfaceFlow` and
 `ShallowWaterRiver`.
 """
-function set_inflow_waterbody(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,SurfaceFlow,ShallowWaterRiver}},V,R,W,T}
+function set_inflow_waterbody!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {
+    N,
+    L <: NamedTuple{<:Any, <:Tuple{Any, SurfaceFlow, ShallowWaterRiver}},
+    V,
+    R,
+    W,
+    T,
+}
     (; lateral, network) = model
     (; subsurface, land, river) = lateral
     inds = network.index_river
@@ -1782,10 +1766,11 @@ function set_inflow_waterbody(
             @. river.inflow_wb = lateral.land.q_av[inds] + lateral.land.to_river[inds]
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    set_inflow_waterbody(
+    set_inflow_waterbody!(
         model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
     ) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,ShallowWaterLand,ShallowWaterRiver}},V,R,W,T}
 
@@ -1793,11 +1778,18 @@ Set inflow from the subsurface and land components to a water body (reservoir or
 `inflow_wb` from a model type that contains the lateral components `ShallowWaterLand` and
 `ShallowWaterRiver`.
 """
-function set_inflow_waterbody(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,ShallowWaterLand,ShallowWaterRiver}},V,R,W,T}
+function set_inflow_waterbody!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {
+    N,
+    L <: NamedTuple{<:Any, <:Tuple{Any, ShallowWaterLand, ShallowWaterRiver}},
+    V,
+    R,
+    W,
+    T,
+}
     (; lateral, network) = model
-    (; subsurface, land) = lateral
+    (; subsurface, land, river) = lateral
     inds = network.index_river
 
     if !isnothing(lateral.river.reservoir) || !isnothing(lateral.river.lake)
@@ -1806,25 +1798,27 @@ function set_inflow_waterbody(
                 (subsurface.ssf[inds] + subsurface.to_river[inds]) / tosecond(basetimestep)
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    surface_routing(model; ssf_toriver = 0.0)
+    surface_routing!(model; ssf_toriver = 0.0)
 
 Run surface routing (land and river). Kinematic wave for overland flow and kinematic wave or
 local inertial model for river flow.
 """
-function surface_routing(model; ssf_toriver = 0.0)
+function surface_routing!(model; ssf_toriver = 0.0)
     (; lateral, network, clock) = model
 
     # run kinematic wave for overland flow
-    set_land_inwater(model)
-    update(lateral.land, network.land, network.frac_toriver)
+    set_land_inwater!(model)
+    update!(lateral.land, network.land, network.frac_toriver)
 
     # run river flow
-    set_river_inwater(model, ssf_toriver)
-    set_inflow_waterbody(model)
-    update(lateral.river, network.river, julian_day(clock.time - clock.dt))
+    set_river_inwater!(model, ssf_toriver)
+    set_inflow_waterbody!(model)
+    update!(lateral.river, network.river, julian_day(clock.time - clock.dt))
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -1836,19 +1830,28 @@ end
 Run surface routing (land and river) for a model type that contains the lateral components
 `ShallowWaterLand` and `ShallowWaterRiver`.
 """
-function surface_routing(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T};
+function surface_routing!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T};
     ssf_toriver = 0.0,
-) where {N,L<:NamedTuple{<:Any,<:Tuple{Any,ShallowWaterLand,ShallowWaterRiver}},V,R,W,T}
-
+) where {
+    N,
+    L <: NamedTuple{<:Any, <:Tuple{Any, ShallowWaterLand, ShallowWaterRiver}},
+    V,
+    R,
+    W,
+    T,
+}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, clock) = model
+    (; net_runoff) = vertical.soil.variables
+    (; net_runoff_river) = vertical.runoff.variables
 
     @. lateral.land.runoff = (
-        (vertical.net_runoff / 1000.0) * network.land.area / vertical.dt +
+        (net_runoff / 1000.0) * (network.land.area) / vertical.dt +
         ssf_toriver +
         # net_runoff_river
-        ((vertical.net_runoff_river * network.land.area * 0.001) / vertical.dt)
+        ((net_runoff_river * network.land.area * 0.001) / vertical.dt)
     )
-    set_inflow_waterbody(model)
-    update(lateral.land, lateral.river, network, julian_day(clock.time - clock.dt))
+    set_inflow_waterbody!(model)
+    update!(lateral.land, lateral.river, network, julian_day(clock.time - clock.dt))
+    return nothing
 end
diff --git a/src/forcing.jl b/src/forcing.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..294aa2908
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/forcing.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+"Struct to store atmospheric forcing variables"
+@get_units @with_kw struct AtmosphericForcing{T}
+    # Precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    precipitation::Vector{T}
+    # Potential reference evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    potential_evaporation::Vector{T}
+    # Temperature [ᵒC]
+    temperature::Vector{T} | "°C"
+end
+
+"Initialize atmospheric forcing"
+function AtmosphericForcing(
+    n;
+    precipitation::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+    potential_evaporation::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+    temperature::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+) where {T}
+    return AtmosphericForcing{T}(;
+        precipitation,
+        potential_evaporation,
+        temperature,
+    )
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/glacier/glacier.jl b/src/glacier/glacier.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8f5be9553
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/glacier/glacier.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+abstract type AbstractGlacierModel{T} end
+
+"Struct for storing glacier model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct GlacierVariables{T}
+    # Water within the glacier [mm]
+    glacier_store::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Glacier melt [mm Δt⁻¹]  
+    glacier_melt::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize glacier model variables"
+function GlacierVariables(nc, config, inds)
+    glacier_store = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.glacier.variables.glacier_store";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 5500.0,
+        type = Float,
+        fill = 0.0,
+    )
+    n = length(glacier_store)
+    vars = GlacierVariables(; glacier_store = glacier_store, glacier_melt = fill(mv, n))
+    return vars
+end
+
+"Struct for storing boundary condition (snow storage from a snow model) of a glacier model"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SnowStateBC{T}
+    # Snow storage [mm]
+    snow_storage::Vector{T} | "mm"
+end
+
+"Struct for storing glacier HBV model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct GlacierHbvParameters{T}
+    # Threshold temperature for snowfall above glacier [ᵒC]
+    g_tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
+    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹] for glacier
+    g_cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
+    # Fraction of the snowpack on top of the glacier converted into ice [Δt⁻¹]
+    g_sifrac::Vector{T} | "dt-1"
+    # Fraction covered by a glacier [-]
+    glacier_frac::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Maximum snow to glacier conversion rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    max_snow_to_glacier::T
+end
+
+"Glacier HBV model"
+@with_kw struct GlacierHbvModel{T} <: AbstractGlacierModel{T}
+    boundary_conditions::SnowStateBC{T}
+    parameters::GlacierHbvParameters{T}
+    variables::GlacierVariables{T}
+end
+
+struct NoGlacierModel{T} <: AbstractGlacierModel{T} end
+
+"Initialize glacier HBV model parameters"
+function GlacierHbvParameters(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    g_tt = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.glacier.parameters.g_tt";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+        fill = 0.0,
+    )
+    g_cfmax =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.glacier.parameters.g_cfmax";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 3.0,
+            type = Float,
+            fill = 0.0,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    g_sifrac =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.glacier.parameters.g_sifrac";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.001,
+            type = Float,
+            fill = 0.0,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    glacier_frac = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.glacier.parameters.glacier_frac";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+        fill = 0.0,
+    )
+    max_snow_to_glacier = 8.0 * (dt / basetimestep)
+    glacier_hbv_params = GlacierHbvParameters(;
+        g_tt = g_tt,
+        g_cfmax = g_cfmax,
+        g_sifrac = g_sifrac,
+        glacier_frac = glacier_frac,
+        max_snow_to_glacier = max_snow_to_glacier,
+    )
+    return glacier_hbv_params
+end
+
+"Initialize glacier HBV model"
+function GlacierHbvModel(nc, config, inds, dt, bc)
+    params = GlacierHbvParameters(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    vars = GlacierVariables(nc, config, inds)
+    model =
+        GlacierHbvModel(; boundary_conditions = bc, parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Update glacier HBV model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::GlacierHbvModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    (; temperature) = atmospheric_forcing
+    (; glacier_store, glacier_melt) = model.variables
+    (; snow_storage) = model.boundary_conditions
+    (; g_tt, g_cfmax, g_sifrac, glacier_frac, max_snow_to_glacier) = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(temperature)
+
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        snow_storage[i], _, glacier_store[i], glacier_melt[i] = glacier_hbv(
+            glacier_frac[i],
+            glacier_store[i],
+            snow_storage[i],
+            temperature[i],
+            g_tt[i],
+            g_cfmax[i],
+            g_sifrac[i],
+            max_snow_to_glacier,
+        )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+function update!(model::NoGlacierModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_glacier_melt(model::NoGlacierModel) = 0.0
+get_glacier_melt(model::AbstractGlacierModel) = model.variables.glacier_melt
+get_glacier_fraction(model::NoGlacierModel) = 0.0
+get_glacier_fraction(model::AbstractGlacierModel) = model.parameters.glacier_frac
+get_glacier_store(model::NoGlacierModel) = 0.0
+get_glacier_store(model::AbstractGlacierModel) = model.variables.glacier_store
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/glacier/glacier_process.jl b/src/glacier/glacier_process.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..17175b0d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/glacier/glacier_process.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+"""
+    glacier_hbv(glacierfrac, glacierstore, snow_storage, temperature, tt, cfmax, g_sifrac, max_snow_to_glacier)
+
+HBV-light type of glacier modelling.
+First, a fraction of the snowpack is converted into ice using the HBV-light
+model (fraction between 0.001-0.005 per day).
+Glacier melting is modelled using a temperature degree factor and only
+occurs if the snow storage < 10 mm.
+
+# Arguments
+- `glacierFrac` fraction covered by glaciers [-]
+- `glacierstore` volume of the glacier [mm] w.e.
+- `snow_storage` snow storage on top of glacier [mm]
+- `temperature` air temperature [°C]
+- `tt` temperature threshold for ice melting [°C]
+- `cfmax` ice degree-day factor in [mm/(°C/day)]
+- `g_sifrac` fraction of the snow turned into ice [-]
+- `max_snow_to_glacier` maximum snow to glacier conversion rate
+
+# Output
+- `snow`
+- `snow_to_glacier`
+- `glacierstore`
+- `glaciermelt`
+
+"""
+function glacier_hbv(
+    glacierfrac,
+    glacierstore,
+    snow,
+    temperature,
+    tt,
+    cfmax,
+    g_sifrac,
+    max_snow_to_glacier,
+)
+
+    # Fraction of the snow transformed into ice (HBV-light model)
+    snow_to_glacier = g_sifrac * snow
+    snow_to_glacier = glacierfrac > 0.0 ? snow_to_glacier : 0.0
+
+    # Restrict snow_to_glacier conversion
+    snow_to_glacier = min(snow_to_glacier, max_snow_to_glacier)
+
+    snow = snow - (snow_to_glacier * glacierfrac)
+    glacierstore = glacierstore + snow_to_glacier
+
+    # Potential snow melt, based on temperature
+    potmelt = temperature > tt ? cfmax * (temperature - tt) : 0.0
+
+    # actual Glacier melt
+    glaciermelt = snow < 10.0 ? min(potmelt, glacierstore) : 0.0
+    glacierstore = glacierstore - glaciermelt
+
+    return snow, snow_to_glacier, glacierstore, glaciermelt
+end
diff --git a/src/groundwater/aquifer.jl b/src/groundwater/aquifer.jl
index ea03659c7..3a8619bf6 100644
--- a/src/groundwater/aquifer.jl
+++ b/src/groundwater/aquifer.jl
@@ -64,10 +64,8 @@ instead.
 """
 abstract type Aquifer end
 
-
 abstract type AquiferBoundaryCondition end
 
-
 """
     ConfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
 
@@ -86,7 +84,7 @@ NOTA BENE: **specific** storage is per m of aquifer (conf. specific weight).
 **Storativity** or (**storage coefficient**) is for the entire aquifer (conf.
 transmissivity).
 """
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct ConfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
+@get_units @grid_loc struct ConfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
     head::Vector{T} | "m"  # hydraulic head [m]
     k::Vector{T} | "m d-1"  # horizontal conductivity [m d⁻¹]
     top::Vector{T} | "m" # top of groundwater layer [m]
@@ -98,7 +96,6 @@ transmissivity).
     volume::Vector{T} | "m3" # total volume of water that can be released
 end
 
-
 """
     UnconfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
 
@@ -110,7 +107,7 @@ aquifer will yield when all water drains and the pore volume is filled by air
 instead. Specific yield will vary roughly between 0.05 (clay) and 0.45 (peat)
 (Johnson, 1967).
 """
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct UnconfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
+@get_units @grid_loc struct UnconfinedAquifer{T} <: Aquifer
     head::Vector{T} | "m"  # hydraulic head [m]
     k::Vector{T} | "m d-1"  # reference horizontal conductivity [m d⁻¹]
     top::Vector{T} | "m" # top of groundwater layer [m]
@@ -124,11 +121,9 @@ instead. Specific yield will vary roughly between 0.05 (clay) and 0.45 (peat)
     # conductivity_profile is set to "exponential")
 end
 
-
 storativity(A::UnconfinedAquifer) = A.specific_yield
 storativity(A::ConfinedAquifer) = A.storativity
 
-
 """
     harmonicmean_conductance(kH1, kH2, l1, l2, width)
 
@@ -152,12 +147,11 @@ function harmonicmean_conductance(kH1, kH2, l1, l2, width)
 end
 
 function saturated_thickness(aquifer::UnconfinedAquifer, index::Int)
-    min(aquifer.top[index], aquifer.head[index]) - aquifer.bottom[index]
+    return min(aquifer.top[index], aquifer.head[index]) - aquifer.bottom[index]
 end
 
-
 function saturated_thickness(aquifer::ConfinedAquifer, index::Int)
-    aquifer.top[index] - aquifer.bottom[index]
+    return aquifer.top[index] - aquifer.bottom[index]
 end
 
 function saturated_thickness(aquifer::UnconfinedAquifer)
@@ -182,7 +176,7 @@ function horizontal_conductance(
     nzi::Int,
     aquifer::A,
     connectivity::Connectivity,
-) where {A<:Aquifer}
+) where {A <: Aquifer}
     k1 = aquifer.k[i]
     k2 = aquifer.k[j]
     H1 = aquifer.top[i] - aquifer.bottom[i]
@@ -202,8 +196,11 @@ Conductance for a confined aquifer is constant, and only has to be set once.
 For an unconfined aquifer, conductance is computed per timestep by multiplying by
 degree of saturation [0.0 - 1.0].
 """
-function initialize_conductance!(aquifer::A, connectivity::Connectivity) where {A<:Aquifer}
-    for i = 1:connectivity.ncell
+function initialize_conductance!(
+    aquifer::A,
+    connectivity::Connectivity,
+) where {A <: Aquifer}
+    for i in 1:(connectivity.ncell)
         # Loop over connections for cell j
         for nzi in connections(connectivity, i)
             j = connectivity.rowval[nzi]
@@ -213,7 +210,6 @@ function initialize_conductance!(aquifer::A, connectivity::Connectivity) where {
     end
 end
 
-
 function conductance(
     aquifer::ConfinedAquifer,
     i,
@@ -225,7 +221,6 @@ function conductance(
     return aquifer.conductance[nzi]
 end
 
-
 """
     conductance(aquifer::UnconfinedAquifer, connectivity::Connectivity)
 
@@ -260,7 +255,6 @@ function conductance(
     conductivity_profile::String,
     connectivity::Connectivity,
 )
-
     if conductivity_profile == "exponential"
         # Extract required variables
         zi1 = aquifer.top[i] - aquifer.head[i]
@@ -302,7 +296,7 @@ function conductance(
 end
 
 function flux!(Q, aquifer, connectivity, conductivity_profile)
-    for i = 1:connectivity.ncell
+    for i in 1:(connectivity.ncell)
         # Loop over connections for cell j
         for nzi in connections(connectivity, i)
             # connection from i -> j
@@ -315,13 +309,11 @@ function flux!(Q, aquifer, connectivity, conductivity_profile)
     return Q
 end
 
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct ConstantHead{T}
+@get_units @grid_loc struct ConstantHead{T}
     head::Vector{T} | "m"
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 """
     stable_timestep(aquifer)
 
@@ -352,8 +344,7 @@ end
 minimum_head(aquifer::ConfinedAquifer) = aquifer.head
 minimum_head(aquifer::UnconfinedAquifer) = max.(aquifer.head, aquifer.bottom)
 
-
-function update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+function update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
     Q .= 0.0  # TODO: Probably remove this when linking with other components
     flux!(Q, gwf.aquifer, gwf.connectivity, conductivity_profile)
     for boundary in gwf.boundaries
@@ -366,22 +357,42 @@ function update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
     gwf.aquifer.head .= minimum_head(gwf.aquifer)
     gwf.aquifer.volume .=
         saturated_thickness(gwf.aquifer) .* gwf.aquifer.area .* storativity(gwf.aquifer)
-    return gwf
+    return nothing
 end
 
-
-Base.@kwdef struct GroundwaterFlow{A,B}
+Base.@kwdef struct GroundwaterFlow{A, C, CH, B}
     aquifer::A
-    connectivity::Connectivity
-    constanthead::ConstantHead
-    boundaries::Vector{B}
-    function GroundwaterFlow(
-        aquifer::A,
-        connectivity,
-        constanthead,
-        boundaries::Vector{B},
-    ) where {A<:Aquifer,B<:AquiferBoundaryCondition}
-        initialize_conductance!(aquifer, connectivity)
-        new{A,B}(aquifer, connectivity, constanthead, boundaries)
-    end
+    connectivity::C
+    constanthead::CH
+    boundaries::B
 end
+
+function GroundwaterFlow{T}(;
+    aquifer::Aquifer,
+    connectivity::Connectivity{T},
+    constanthead::ConstantHead{T},
+    boundaries::Vector{AquiferBoundaryCondition},
+) where {T}
+    initialize_conductance!(aquifer, connectivity)
+    args = (aquifer, connectivity, constanthead, boundaries)
+    GroundwaterFlow{typeof.(args)...}(args...)
+end
+
+function get_water_depth(
+    gwf::GroundwaterFlow{A, C, CH, B},
+) where {A <: UnconfinedAquifer, C, CH, B}
+    gwf.aquifer.head .= min.(gwf.aquifer.head, gwf.aquifer.top)
+    gwf.aquifer.head[gwf.constanthead.index] .= gwf.constanthead.head
+    wtd = gwf.aquifer.top .- gwf.aquifer.head
+    return wtd
+end
+
+function get_exfiltwater(
+    gwf::GroundwaterFlow{A, C, CH, B},
+) where {A <: UnconfinedAquifer, C, CH, B}
+    exfiltwater =
+        (gwf.aquifer.head .- min.(gwf.aquifer.head, gwf.aquifer.top)) .*
+        storativity(gwf.aquifer)
+    exfiltwater[gwf.constanthead.index] .= 0
+    return exfiltwater
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/groundwater/boundary_conditions.jl b/src/groundwater/boundary_conditions.jl
index 06a04897e..48e883527 100644
--- a/src/groundwater/boundary_conditions.jl
+++ b/src/groundwater/boundary_conditions.jl
@@ -8,12 +8,10 @@ function check_flux(flux, aquifer::UnconfinedAquifer, index::Int)
     end
 end
 
-
 # Do nothing for a confined aquifer: aquifer can always provide flux
 check_flux(flux, aquifer::ConfinedAquifer, index::Int) = flux
 
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct River{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
+@get_units @grid_loc struct River{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
     stage::Vector{T} | "m"
     infiltration_conductance::Vector{T} | "m2 d-1"
     exfiltration_conductance::Vector{T} | "m2 d-1"
@@ -22,7 +20,6 @@ check_flux(flux, aquifer::ConfinedAquifer, index::Int) = flux
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 function flux!(Q, river::River, aquifer)
     for (i, index) in enumerate(river.index)
         head = aquifer.head[index]
@@ -40,16 +37,13 @@ function flux!(Q, river::River, aquifer)
     return Q
 end
 
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct Drainage{T} <:
-                                                      AquiferBoundaryCondition
+@get_units @grid_loc struct Drainage{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
     elevation::Vector{T} | "m"
     conductance::Vector{T} | "m2 d-1"
     flux::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 function flux!(Q, drainage::Drainage, aquifer)
     for (i, index) in enumerate(drainage.index)
         cond = drainage.conductance[i]
@@ -60,15 +54,13 @@ function flux!(Q, drainage::Drainage, aquifer)
     return Q
 end
 
-
-@get_units struct HeadBoundary{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
+@get_units @grid_loc struct HeadBoundary{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
     head::Vector{T} | "m"
     conductance::Vector{T} | "m2 d-1"
     flux::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 function flux!(Q, headboundary::HeadBoundary, aquifer)
     for (i, index) in enumerate(headboundary.index)
         cond = headboundary.conductance[i]
@@ -79,15 +71,12 @@ function flux!(Q, headboundary::HeadBoundary, aquifer)
     return Q
 end
 
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location struct Recharge{T} <:
-                                                      AquiferBoundaryCondition
+@get_units @grid_loc struct Recharge{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
     rate::Vector{T} | "m d-1"
     flux::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 function flux!(Q, recharge::Recharge, aquifer)
     for (i, index) in enumerate(recharge.index)
         recharge.flux[i] =
@@ -97,14 +86,12 @@ function flux!(Q, recharge::Recharge, aquifer)
     return Q
 end
 
-
-@get_units struct Well{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
+@get_units @grid_loc struct Well{T} <: AquiferBoundaryCondition
     volumetric_rate::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"
     flux::Vector{T} | "m3 d-1"
     index::Vector{Int} | "-"
 end
 
-
 function flux!(Q, well::Well, aquifer)
     for (i, index) in enumerate(well.index)
         well.flux[i] = check_flux(well.volumetric_rate[i], aquifer, index)
diff --git a/src/groundwater/connectivity.jl b/src/groundwater/connectivity.jl
index 90a9bf6f2..538aac097 100644
--- a/src/groundwater/connectivity.jl
+++ b/src/groundwater/connectivity.jl
@@ -29,14 +29,12 @@ struct Connectivity{T}
     rowval::Vector{Int}
 end
 
-
 """
     connections(C::Connectivity, id::Int)
 
 Returns connections for a single cell, identified by ``id``.
 """
-connections(C::Connectivity, id::Int) = C.colptr[id]:(C.colptr[id+1]-1)
-
+connections(C::Connectivity, id::Int) = C.colptr[id]:(C.colptr[id + 1] - 1)
 
 """
     connection_geometry(I, J, dx, dy)
@@ -59,7 +57,6 @@ function connection_geometry(I, J, dx, dy)
     return (length1, length2, width)
 end
 
-
 # Define cartesian indices for neighbors
 const neighbors = (
     CartesianIndex(0, -1),
diff --git a/src/hbv.jl b/src/hbv.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 038514622..000000000
--- a/src/hbv.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,239 +0,0 @@
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct HBV{T}
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"   # Model time step [s]
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"  # Number of cells
-    fc::Vector{T} | "mm"                # Field capacity [mm]
-    betaseepage::Vector{T} | "-"        # Exponent in soil runoff generation equation [-]
-    lp::Vector{T} | "-"                 # Fraction of field capacity below which actual evaporation=potential evaporation [-]
-    threshold::Vector{T} | "mm"         # Threshold soilwater storage above which AE=PE [mm]
-    k4::Vector{T} | "dt-1"              # Recession constant baseflow [Δt⁻¹]
-    kquickflow::Vector{T} | "dt-1"      # Recession constant upper reservoir [Δt⁻¹]
-    suz::Vector{T} | "mm"               # Level over which k0 is used [mm]
-    k0::Vector{T} | "dt-1"              # Recession constant upper reservoir [Δt⁻¹]
-    khq::Vector{T} | "dt-1"             # Recession rate at flow hq [Δt⁻¹]
-    hq::Vector{T}                       # High flow rate hq for which recession rate of upper reservoir is known [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    alphanl::Vector{T}                  # Measure of non-linearity of upper reservoir
-    perc::Vector{T}                     # Percolation from upper to lower zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    cfr::Vector{T} | "-"                # Refreezing efficiency constant in refreezing of freewater in snow [-]
-    pcorr::Vector{T} | "-"              # Correction factor for precipitation [-]
-    rfcf::Vector{T} | "-"               # Correction factor for rainfall [-]
-    sfcf::Vector{T} | "-"               # Correction factor for snowfall [-]
-    cflux::Vector{T}                    # Maximum capillary rise from runoff response routine to soil moisture routine [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    icf::Vector{T} | "mm"               # Maximum interception storage (in forested and non-forested areas) [mm]
-    cevpf::Vector{T} | "-"              # Correction factor for potential evaporation [-]
-    epf::Vector{T} | "mm-1"             # Exponent of correction factor for evaporation on days with precipitation
-    ecorr::Vector{T} | "-"              # Evap correction [-]
-    tti::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"               # Critical temperature for snowmelt and refreezing [ᵒC]
-    tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"                # Defines interval in which precipitation falls as rainfall and snowfall [ᵒC]
-    ttm::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"               # Threshold temperature for snowmelt [ᵒC]
-    cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"   # Meltconstant in temperature-index [-]
-    whc::Vector{T} | "-"                # Fraction of snow volume that can store water [-]
-    g_tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"              # Threshold temperature for snowfall above glacier [ᵒC]
-    g_cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1" # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹] for glacier
-    g_sifrac::Vector{T} | "dt-1"        # Fraction of the snowpack on top of the glacier converted into ice [Δt⁻¹]
-    glacierstore::Vector{T} | "mm"      # Water within the glacier [mm]
-    glacierfrac::Vector{T} | "-"        # Fraction covered by a glacier [-]
-    precipitation::Vector{T}            # Precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    temperature::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"       # Temperature [ᵒC]
-    potential_evaporation::Vector{T}    # Potential evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    potsoilevap::Vector{T}              # Potential soil evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    soilevap::Vector{T}                 # Soil evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    intevap::Vector{T}                  # Evaporation from interception storage [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actevap::Vector{T}                  # Total actual evapotranspiration (intevap + soilevap) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    interceptionstorage::Vector{T} | "mm"  # Actual interception storage [mm]
-    snowwater::Vector{T} | "mm"            # Available free water in snow [mm]
-    snow::Vector{T} | "mm"                 # Snow pack [mm]
-    rainfallplusmelt::Vector{T}            # Snow melt + precipitation as rainfall [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    soilmoisture::Vector{T} | "mm"         # Actual soil moisture [mm]
-    directrunoff::Vector{T}             # Direct runoff to upper zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    hbv_seepage::Vector{T}              # Recharge to upper zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    in_upperzone::Vector{T}             # Water inflow into upper zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    upperzonestorage::Vector{T} | "mm"  # Water content of the upper zone [mm]
-    quickflow::Vector{T}                # Specific runoff (quickflow part) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    real_quickflow::Vector{T}           # Specific runoff (quickflow), if K upper zone is precalculated [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    percolation::Vector{T}              # Actual percolation to the lower zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    capflux::Vector{T}                  # Capillary rise [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    lowerzonestorage::Vector{T} | "mm"  # Water content of the lower zone [mm]
-    baseflow::Vector{T}                 # Specific runoff (baseflow part) per cell [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    runoff::Vector{T}                   # Total specific runoff per cell [mm Δt⁻¹]
-end
-
-
-function update_until_snow(hbv::HBV, config)
-
-    for i = 1:hbv.n
-        precipitation = hbv.precipitation[i] * hbv.pcorr[i]
-        # fraction of precipitation which falls as rain
-        rainfrac = if iszero(hbv.tti[i])
-            Float64(hbv.temperature[i] > hbv.tt[i])
-        else
-            frac = (hbv.temperature[i] - (hbv.tt[i] - hbv.tti[i] / 2.0)) / hbv.tti[i]
-            min(frac, 1.0)
-        end
-        rainfrac = max(rainfrac, 0.0)
-
-        # fraction of precipitation which falls as snow
-        snowfrac = 1.0 - rainfrac
-        # different correction for rainfall and snowfall
-        precipitation =
-            hbv.sfcf[i] * snowfrac * precipitation + hbv.rfcf[i] * rainfrac * precipitation
-
-        # interception
-        interception = min(precipitation, hbv.icf[i] - hbv.interceptionstorage[i])
-        # current interception storage
-        interceptionstorage = hbv.interceptionstorage[i] + interception
-        precipitation = precipitation - interception
-
-        # correction for potential evaporation on wet days
-        potevap =
-            exp(-hbv.epf[i] * precipitation) * hbv.ecorr[i] * hbv.potential_evaporation[i]
-        # correct per landuse
-        potevap = hbv.cevpf[i] * potevap
-
-        # evaporation from interception storage
-        intevap = min(interceptionstorage, potevap)
-        interceptionstorage = interceptionstorage - intevap
-        restevap = max(0.0, potevap - intevap)
-
-        snow, snowwater, snowmelt, rainfallplusmelt, snowfall = snowpack_hbv(
-            hbv.snow[i],
-            hbv.snowwater[i],
-            precipitation,
-            hbv.temperature[i],
-            hbv.tti[i],
-            hbv.tt[i],
-            hbv.ttm[i],
-            hbv.cfmax[i],
-            hbv.whc[i],
-        )
-
-        # update the outputs and states
-        hbv.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        hbv.snowwater[i] = snowwater
-        hbv.snow[i] = snow
-        hbv.interceptionstorage[i] = interceptionstorage
-        hbv.potsoilevap[i] = restevap
-        hbv.intevap[i] = intevap
-    end
-end
-
-function update_after_snow(hbv::HBV, config)
-
-    modelglacier = get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
-    set_kquickflow = get(config.model, "set_kquickflow", false)::Bool
-    external_qbase = get(config.model, "external_qbase", false)::Bool
-
-    for i = 1:hbv.n
-        if modelglacier
-            # Run Glacier module and add the snowpack on-top of it.
-            # Estimate the fraction of snow turned into ice (HBV-light).
-            # Estimate glacier melt.
-
-            hbv.snow[i], _, hbv.glacierstore[i], glaciermelt = glacier_hbv(
-                hbv.glacierfrac[i],
-                hbv.glacierstore[i],
-                hbv.snow[i],
-                hbv.temperature[i],
-                hbv.g_tt[i],
-                hbv.g_cfmax[i],
-                hbv.g_sifrac[i],
-                Second(hbv.dt),
-            )
-            # Convert to mm per grid cell and add to snowmelt
-            glaciermelt = glaciermelt * hbv.glacierfrac[i]
-            rainfallplusmelt = hbv.rainfallplusmelt[i] + glaciermelt
-        else
-            rainfallplusmelt = hbv.rainfallplusmelt[i]
-        end
-
-        soilmoisture = hbv.soilmoisture[i] + rainfallplusmelt
-        # if soil is filled to capacity: abundant water runs of directly
-        directrunoff = max(soilmoisture - hbv.fc[i], 0.0)
-        soilmoisture = soilmoisture - directrunoff
-        # net water which infiltrates into soil
-        netinsoil = rainfallplusmelt - directrunoff
-
-        # soil evapotranspiration
-        soilevap =
-            soilmoisture > hbv.threshold[i] ? min(soilmoisture, hbv.potsoilevap[i]) :
-            min(hbv.potsoilevap[i] * (soilmoisture / hbv.threshold[i]))
-        # evaporation from soil moisture storage
-        soilmoisture = soilmoisture - soilevap
-        # sum of evaporation components (IntEvap+SoilEvap)
-        actevap = hbv.intevap[i] + soilevap
-        # runoff water from soil
-        hbv_seepage =
-            pow(min(soilmoisture / hbv.fc[i], 1.0), hbv.betaseepage[i]) * netinsoil
-        soilmoisture = soilmoisture - hbv_seepage
-        # correction for extremely wet periods: soil is filled to capacity
-        back_tosoil = min(hbv.fc[i] - soilmoisture, directrunoff)
-        directrunoff = directrunoff - back_tosoil
-        soilmoisture = soilmoisture + back_tosoil
-        # total water available for runoff
-        in_upperzone = directrunoff + hbv_seepage
-        ### calculations for upper zone ###
-        upperzonestorage = hbv.upperzonestorage[i] + in_upperzone
-        percolation = min(hbv.perc[i], upperzonestorage - in_upperzone / 2.0)
-        upperzonestorage = upperzonestorage - percolation
-        # capillary flux flowing back to soil
-        capflux = hbv.cflux[i] * ((hbv.fc[i] - soilmoisture) / hbv.fc[i])
-        capflux = min(hbv.fc[i] - soilmoisture, capflux)
-        upperzonestorage = upperzonestorage - capflux
-        soilmoisture = soilmoisture + capflux
-
-        real_quickflow = 0.0
-        if set_kquickflow == false
-
-            if percolation < hbv.perc[i]
-                quickflow = 0.0
-            else
-                quickflow = min(
-                    hbv.kquickflow[i] * pow(
-                        (upperzonestorage - min(in_upperzone / 2.0, upperzonestorage)),
-                        1.0 + hbv.alphanl[i],
-                    ),
-                    upperzonestorage,
-                )
-
-                upperzonestorage =
-                    percolation < hbv.perc[i] ? upperzonestorage :
-                    max(upperzonestorage - quickflow, 0.0)
-            end
-        else
-            quickflow = hbv.kquickflow[i] * upperzonestorage
-            real_quickflow = max(0.0, hbv.k0[i] * (upperzonestorage - hbv.suz[i]))
-            upperzonestorage = upperzonestorage - quickflow - real_quickflow
-
-        end
-
-        ### calculations for lower zone ###
-        lowerzonestorage = hbv.lowerzonestorage[i] + percolation
-        # baseflow in mm/timestep
-        baseflow = min(lowerzonestorage, hbv.k4[i] * lowerzonestorage)
-        lowerzonestorage = lowerzonestorage - baseflow
-
-        if external_qbase
-            directrunoffstorage = quickflow + hbv_seepage + real_quickflow
-        else
-            directrunoffstorage = quickflow + baseflow + real_quickflow
-        end
-
-        runoff = max(0.0, directrunoffstorage)
-
-        # update the outputs and states
-        hbv.runoff[i] = runoff
-        hbv.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        hbv.soilmoisture[i] = soilmoisture
-        hbv.soilevap[i] = soilevap
-        hbv.actevap[i] = actevap
-        hbv.quickflow[i] = quickflow
-        hbv.real_quickflow[i] = real_quickflow
-        hbv.upperzonestorage[i] = upperzonestorage
-        hbv.lowerzonestorage[i] = lowerzonestorage
-        hbv.baseflow[i] = baseflow
-        hbv.hbv_seepage[i] = hbv_seepage
-        hbv.percolation[i] = percolation
-        hbv.capflux[i] = capflux
-        hbv.in_upperzone[i] = in_upperzone
-    end
-
-end
diff --git a/src/hbv_model.jl b/src/hbv_model.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 7c63bc252..000000000
--- a/src/hbv_model.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,446 +0,0 @@
-"""
-    initialize_hbv_model(config::Config)
-
-Initial part of the SBM model concept. Reads the input settings and data as defined in the
-Config object. Will return a Model that is ready to run.
-"""
-function initialize_hbv_model(config::Config)
-    # unpack the paths to the netCDF files
-    static_path = input_path(config, config.input.path_static)
-
-    reader = prepare_reader(config)
-    clock = Clock(config, reader)
-    dt = clock.dt
-
-    do_reservoirs = get(config.model, "reservoirs", false)::Bool
-    do_lakes = get(config.model, "lakes", false)::Bool
-    do_pits = get(config.model, "pits", false)::Bool
-    set_kquickflow = get(config.model, "set_kquickflow", false)::Bool
-
-    kw_river_tstep = get(config.model, "kw_river_tstep", 0)
-    kw_land_tstep = get(config.model, "kw_land_tstep", 0)
-    kinwave_it = get(config.model, "kin_wave_iteration", false)::Bool
-
-    nc = NCDataset(static_path)
-
-    subcatch_2d = ncread(nc, config, "subcatchment"; optional = false, allow_missing = true)
-    # indices based on catchment
-    inds, rev_inds = active_indices(subcatch_2d, missing)
-    n = length(inds)
-
-    cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.75653,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    tt = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tt"; sel = inds, defaults = -1.41934, type = Float)
-    tti = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tti"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    ttm = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ttm"; sel = inds, defaults = -1.41934, type = Float)
-    whc = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.whc"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.1, type = Float)
-    # glacier parameters
-    g_tt = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.g_tt";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    g_cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.0,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    g_sifrac =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_sifrac";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.001,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    glacierfrac = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierfrac";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    glacierstore = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierstore";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 5500.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    fc = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.fc"; sel = inds, defaults = 260.0, type = Float)
-    betaseepage =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.betaseepage"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.8, type = Float)
-    lp = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.lp"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.53, type = Float)
-    k4 =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.k4"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.02307, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    kquickflow =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.kquickflow";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.09880,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    suz = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.suz"; sel = inds, defaults = 100.0, type = Float)
-    k0 =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.k0"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.30, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    khq =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.khq"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.09880, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    hq =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.hq"; sel = inds, defaults = 3.27, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    alphanl =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.alphanl"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.1, type = Float)
-    perc =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.perc"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.4, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    cfr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cfr"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.05, type = Float)
-    pcorr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.pcorr"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    rfcf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.rfcf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    sfcf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.sfcf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    cflux =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cflux"; sel = inds, defaults = 2.0, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    icf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.icf"; sel = inds, defaults = 2.0, type = Float)
-    cevpf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cevpf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    epf = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.epf"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    ecorr = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ecorr"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-
-    # read x, y coordinates and calculate cell length [m]
-    y_nc = read_y_axis(nc)
-    x_nc = read_x_axis(nc)
-    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc, outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
-    cellength = abs(mean(diff(x_nc)))
-
-
-    sizeinmetres = get(config.model, "sizeinmetres", false)::Bool
-    xl, yl = cell_lengths(y, cellength, sizeinmetres)
-
-    threshold = fc .* lp
-
-    hbv = HBV{Float}(
-        dt = Float(tosecond(dt)),
-        n = n,
-        fc = fc,
-        betaseepage = betaseepage,
-        lp = lp,
-        threshold = threshold,
-        k4 = k4,
-        kquickflow = set_kquickflow ? kquickflow :
-                     pow.(khq, 1.0 .+ alphanl) .* pow.(hq, -alphanl),
-        suz = suz,
-        k0 = k0,
-        khq = khq,
-        hq = hq,
-        alphanl = alphanl,
-        perc = perc,
-        cfr = cfr,
-        pcorr = pcorr,
-        rfcf = rfcf,
-        sfcf = sfcf,
-        cflux = cflux,
-        icf = icf,
-        cevpf = cevpf,
-        epf = epf,
-        ecorr = ecorr,
-        tti = tti,
-        tt = tt,
-        ttm = ttm,
-        cfmax = cfmax,
-        whc = whc,
-        # glacier parameters
-        g_tt = g_tt,
-        g_sifrac = g_sifrac,
-        g_cfmax = g_cfmax,
-        glacierstore = glacierstore,
-        glacierfrac = glacierfrac,
-        # default (cold) states:
-        interceptionstorage = zeros(Float, n),
-        snow = zeros(Float, n),
-        snowwater = zeros(Float, n),
-        soilmoisture = copy(fc),
-        upperzonestorage = 0.2 .* fc,
-        lowerzonestorage = 1.0 ./ (3.0 .* k4),
-        # variables:
-        precipitation = fill(mv, n),
-        temperature = fill(mv, n),
-        potential_evaporation = fill(mv, n),
-        potsoilevap = fill(mv, n),
-        soilevap = fill(mv, n),
-        intevap = fill(mv, n),
-        actevap = fill(mv, n),
-        rainfallplusmelt = fill(mv, n),
-        directrunoff = fill(mv, n),
-        hbv_seepage = fill(mv, n),
-        in_upperzone = fill(mv, n),
-        quickflow = fill(mv, n),
-        real_quickflow = fill(mv, n),
-        percolation = fill(mv, n),
-        capflux = fill(mv, n),
-        baseflow = fill(mv, n),
-        runoff = fill(mv, n),
-    )
-
-    modelsize_2d = size(subcatch_2d)
-    river_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "river_location"; optional = false, type = Bool, fill = false)
-    river = river_2d[inds]
-    riverwidth_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.river.width"; optional = false, type = Float, fill = 0)
-    riverwidth = riverwidth_2d[inds]
-    riverlength_2d =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.river.length"; optional = false, type = Float, fill = 0)
-    riverlength = riverlength_2d[inds]
-
-    inds_riv, rev_inds_riv = active_indices(river_2d, 0)
-    nriv = length(inds_riv)
-
-    # reservoirs
-    pits = zeros(Bool, modelsize_2d)
-    if do_reservoirs
-        reservoirs, resindex, reservoir, pits =
-            initialize_simple_reservoir(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, tosecond(dt))
-    else
-        reservoir = ()
-        reservoirs = nothing
-        resindex = fill(0, nriv)
-    end
-
-    # lakes
-    if do_lakes
-        lakes, lakeindex, lake, pits =
-            initialize_lake(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, tosecond(dt))
-    else
-        lake = ()
-        lakes = nothing
-        lakeindex = fill(0, nriv)
-    end
-
-    ldd_2d = ncread(nc, config, "ldd"; optional = false, allow_missing = true)
-    ldd = ldd_2d[inds]
-    if do_pits
-        pits_2d = ncread(nc, config, "pits"; optional = false, type = Bool, fill = false)
-        ldd = set_pit_ldd(pits_2d, ldd, inds)
-    end
-
-    landslope =
-        ncread(nc, config, "lateral.land.slope"; optional = false, sel = inds, type = Float)
-    clamp!(landslope, 0.00001, Inf)
-
-    dl = map(detdrainlength, ldd, xl, yl)
-    dw = (xl .* yl) ./ dl
-    olf = initialize_surfaceflow_land(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        inds;
-        sl = landslope,
-        dl = dl,
-        width = map(det_surfacewidth, dw, riverwidth, river),
-        iterate = kinwave_it,
-        tstep = kw_land_tstep,
-        dt = dt,
-    )
-
-    graph = flowgraph(ldd, inds, pcr_dir)
-
-    riverlength = riverlength_2d[inds_riv]
-    riverwidth = riverwidth_2d[inds_riv]
-    minimum(riverlength) > 0 || error("river length must be positive on river cells")
-    minimum(riverwidth) > 0 || error("river width must be positive on river cells")
-
-    ldd_riv = ldd_2d[inds_riv]
-    if do_pits
-        ldd_riv = set_pit_ldd(pits_2d, ldd_riv, inds_riv)
-    end
-    graph_riv = flowgraph(ldd_riv, inds_riv, pcr_dir)
-
-    # the indices of the river cells in the land(+river) cell vector
-    index_river = filter(i -> !isequal(river[i], 0), 1:n)
-    frac_toriver = fraction_runoff_toriver(graph, ldd, index_river, landslope, n)
-
-    rf = initialize_surfaceflow_river(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        inds_riv;
-        dl = riverlength,
-        width = riverwidth,
-        reservoir_index = resindex,
-        reservoir = reservoirs,
-        lake_index = lakeindex,
-        lake = lakes,
-        iterate = kinwave_it,
-        tstep = kw_river_tstep,
-        dt = dt,
-    )
-
-    # setup subdomains for the land and river kinematic wave domain, if nthreads = 1
-    # subdomain is equal to the complete domain
-    toposort = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph)
-    toposort_riv = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph_riv)
-    index_pit_land = findall(x -> x == 5, ldd)
-    index_pit_river = findall(x -> x == 5, ldd_riv)
-    streamorder = stream_order(graph, toposort)
-    min_streamorder_land = get(config.model, "min_streamorder_land", 5)
-    subbas_order, indices_subbas, topo_subbas = kinwave_set_subdomains(
-        graph,
-        toposort,
-        index_pit_land,
-        streamorder,
-        min_streamorder_land,
-    )
-    min_streamorder_river = get(config.model, "min_streamorder_river", 6)
-    subriv_order, indices_subriv, topo_subriv = kinwave_set_subdomains(
-        graph_riv,
-        toposort_riv,
-        index_pit_river,
-        streamorder[index_river],
-        min_streamorder_river,
-    )
-
-    modelmap = (vertical = hbv, lateral = (land = olf, river = rf))
-    indices_reverse = (
-        land = rev_inds,
-        river = rev_inds_riv,
-        reservoir = isempty(reservoir) ? nothing : reservoir.reverse_indices,
-        lake = isempty(lake) ? nothing : lake.reverse_indices,
-    )
-    writer = prepare_writer(config, modelmap, indices_reverse, x_nc, y_nc, nc)
-    close(nc)
-
-    # for each domain save:
-    # - the directed acyclic graph (graph),
-    # - the traversion order (order),
-    # - upstream_nodes,
-    # - subdomains for the kinematic wave domains for parallel execution (execution order of
-    #   subbasins (subdomain_order), traversion order per subbasin (topo_subdomain) and
-    #   Vector indices per subbasin matching the traversion order of the complete domain
-    #   (indices_subdomain))
-    # - the indices that map it back to the two dimensional grid (indices)
-
-    # for the land domain the x and y length [m] of the grid cells are stored
-    # for reservoirs and lakes indices information is available from the initialization
-    # functions
-    land = (
-        graph = graph,
-        upstream_nodes = filter_upsteam_nodes(graph, pits[inds]),
-        subdomain_order = subbas_order,
-        topo_subdomain = topo_subbas,
-        indices_subdomain = indices_subbas,
-        order = toposort,
-        indices = inds,
-        reverse_indices = rev_inds,
-        area = xl .* yl,
-    )
-    river = (
-        graph = graph_riv,
-        upstream_nodes = filter_upsteam_nodes(graph_riv, pits[inds_riv]),
-        subdomain_order = subriv_order,
-        topo_subdomain = topo_subriv,
-        indices_subdomain = indices_subriv,
-        order = toposort_riv,
-        indices = inds_riv,
-        reverse_indices = rev_inds_riv,
-    )
-
-    model = Model(
-        config,
-        (; land, river, reservoir, lake, index_river, frac_toriver),
-        (subsurface = nothing, land = olf, river = rf),
-        hbv,
-        clock,
-        reader,
-        writer,
-        HbvModel(),
-    )
-
-    model = set_states(model)
-
-    return model
-end
-
-function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:HbvModel}
-    (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
-
-    # vertical hbv concept is updated until snow state, after that (optional)
-    # snow transport is possible
-    update_until_snow(vertical, config)
-
-    # lateral snow transport
-    if get(config.model, "masswasting", false)::Bool
-        lateral_snow_transport!(
-            vertical.snow,
-            vertical.snowwater,
-            lateral.land.sl,
-            network.land,
-        )
-    end
-
-    # update vertical hbv concept
-    update_after_snow(vertical, config)
-
-    surface_routing(model)
-
-    return model
-end
-
-function set_states(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:HbvModel}
-    (; lateral, config) = model
-
-    reinit = get(config.model, "reinit", true)::Bool
-    do_lakes = get(config.model, "lakes", false)::Bool
-    # read and set states in model object if reinit=true
-    if reinit == false
-        instate_path = input_path(config, config.state.path_input)
-        @info "Set initial conditions from state file `$instate_path`."
-        set_states(instate_path, model; type = Float)
-        # update kinematic wave volume for river and land domain
-        (; lateral) = model
-        # makes sure land cells with zero flow width are set to zero q and h
-        for i in eachindex(lateral.land.width)
-            if lateral.land.width[i] <= 0.0
-                lateral.land.q[i] = 0.0
-                lateral.land.h[i] = 0.0
-            end
-        end
-        lateral.land.volume .= lateral.land.h .* lateral.land.width .* lateral.land.dl
-        lateral.river.volume .= lateral.river.h .* lateral.river.width .* lateral.river.dl
-
-        if do_lakes
-            # storage must be re-initialized after loading the state with the current
-            # waterlevel otherwise the storage will be based on the initial water level
-            lakes = lateral.river.lake
-            lakes.storage .=
-                initialize_storage(lakes.storfunc, lakes.area, lakes.waterlevel, lakes.sh)
-        end
-    else
-        @info "Set initial conditions from default values."
-    end
-
-    return model
-end
diff --git a/src/horizontal_process.jl b/src/horizontal_process.jl
index 5977a667c..fe9c57252 100644
--- a/src/horizontal_process.jl
+++ b/src/horizontal_process.jl
@@ -68,36 +68,49 @@ function kin_wave!(Q, graph, toposort, Qold, q, alpha, beta, DCL, dt)
     return Q
 end
 
-"Returns water table depth `zi` based on lateral subsurface flow `ssf` and hydraulic conductivity profile `ksat_profile`"
-function ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, kh_0, slope, f, d, dw, z_exp, ksat_profile)
-    if ksat_profile == "exponential"
-        zi = log((f * ssf) / (dw * kh_0 * slope) + exp(-f * d)) / -f
-    elseif ksat_profile == "exponential_constant"
-        ssf_constant = kh_0 * slope * exp(-f * z_exp) * (d - z_exp) * dw
-        if ssf > ssf_constant
-            zi = log((f * (ssf - ssf_constant)) / (dw * kh_0 * slope) + exp(-f * z_exp)) / -f
-        else
-            zi = d - ssf / (dw * kh_0 * slope * exp(-f * z_exp))
-        end
-    end
+"Returns water table depth `zi` based on lateral subsurface flow `ssf` and hydraulic conductivity profile `KhExponential`"
+function ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, slope, d, dw, kh_profile::KhExponential, i)
+    (; f, kh_0) = kh_profile
+    zi = log((f[i] * ssf) / (dw * kh_0[i] * slope) + exp(-f[i] * d)) / -f[i]
     return zi
 end
 
-"Returns kinematic wave celecity `Cn` of lateral subsurface flow based on hydraulic conductivity profile `ksat_profile`"
-function ssf_celerity(zi, kh_0, slope, theta_e, f, z_exp, ksat_profile)
-    if ksat_profile == "exponential"
-        Cn = (kh_0 * exp(-f * zi) * slope) / theta_e
-    elseif ksat_profile == "exponential_constant"
-        Cn_const = (kh_0 * exp(-f * z_exp) * slope) / theta_e
-        if zi < z_exp
-            Cn = (kh_0 * exp(-f * zi) * slope) / theta_e + Cn_const
-        else
-            Cn = Cn_const
-        end
+"Returns water table depth `zi` based on lateral subsurface flow `ssf` and hydraulic conductivity profile `KhExponentialConstant`"
+function ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, slope, d, dw, kh_profile::KhExponentialConstant, i)
+    (; z_exp) = kh_profile
+    (; kh_0, f) = kh_profile.exponential
+    ssf_constant = kh_0[i] * slope * exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i]) * (d - z_exp[i]) * dw
+    if ssf > ssf_constant
+        zi =
+            log(
+                (f[i] * (ssf - ssf_constant)) / (dw * kh_0[i] * slope) +
+                exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i]),
+            ) / -f[i]
+    else
+        zi = d - ssf / (dw * kh_0[i] * slope * exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i]))
     end
+    return zi
+end
+
+"Returns kinematic wave celecity `Cn` of lateral subsurface flow based on hydraulic conductivity profile `KhExponential`"
+function ssf_celerity(zi, slope, theta_e, kh_profile::KhExponential, i)
+    (; kh_0, f) = kh_profile
+    Cn = (kh_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * zi) * slope) / theta_e
     return Cn
 end
 
+"Returns kinematic wave celecity `Cn` of lateral subsurface flow based on hydraulic conductivity profile `KhExponentialConstant`"
+function ssf_celerity(zi, slope, theta_e, kh_profile::KhExponentialConstant, i)
+    (; z_exp) = kh_profile
+    (; kh_0, f) = kh_profile.exponential
+    Cn_const = (kh_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i]) * slope) / theta_e
+    return if zi < z_exp[i]
+        (kh_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * zi) * slope) / theta_e + Cn_const
+    else
+        Cn_const
+    end
+end
+
 """
     kinematic_wave_ssf(ssfin, ssf_prev, zi_prev, r, kh_0, slope, theta_e, f, d, dt, dx, dw, ssfmax, z_exp, ksat_profile)
 
@@ -115,19 +128,16 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(
     ssf_prev,
     zi_prev,
     r,
-    kh_0,
     slope,
     theta_e,
-    f,
     d,
     dt,
     dx,
     dw,
     ssfmax,
-    z_exp,
-    ksat_profile,
+    kh_profile::Union{KhExponential, KhExponentialConstant},
+    i,
 )
-
     epsilon = 1.0e-12
     max_iters = 3000
 
@@ -139,9 +149,9 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(
         count = 1
 
         # Estimate zi on the basis of the relation between subsurface flow and zi
-        zi = ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, kh_0, slope, f, d, dw, z_exp, ksat_profile)
+        zi = ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, slope, d, dw, kh_profile, i)
         # Reciprocal of derivative delta Q/ delta z_i, constrained w.r.t. neff on the basis of the continuity equation)
-        Cn = ssf_celerity(zi, kh_0, slope, theta_e, f, z_exp, ksat_profile)
+        Cn = ssf_celerity(zi, slope, theta_e, kh_profile, i)
         # Term of the continuity equation for Newton-Raphson iteration for iteration 1
         # because celerity Cn is depending on zi, the increase or decrease of zi is moved to the recharge term of the continuity equation
         # then (1./Cn)*ssf_prev can be replaced with (1./Cn)*ssf, and thus celerity and lateral flow rate ssf are then in line
@@ -161,9 +171,9 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(
         # Start while loop of Newton-Raphson iteration m until continuity equation approaches zero
         while true
             # Estimate zi on the basis of the relation between lateral flow rate and groundwater level
-            zi = ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, kh_0, slope, f, d, dw, z_exp, ksat_profile)
+            zi = ssf_water_table_depth(ssf, slope, d, dw, kh_profile, i)
             # Reciprocal of derivative delta Q/ delta z_i, constrained w.r.t. neff on the basis of the continuity equation
-            Cn = ssf_celerity(zi, kh_0, slope, theta_e, f, z_exp, ksat_profile)
+            Cn = ssf_celerity(zi, slope, theta_e, kh_profile, i)
             # Term of the continuity equation for given Newton-Raphson iteration m
             # because celerity Cn is depending on zi, the increase or decrease of zi is moved to the recharge term of the continuity equation
             # then (1./Cn)*ssf_prev can be replaced with (1./Cn)*ssf, and thus celerity and lateral flow rate ssf are then in line
@@ -194,7 +204,6 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(
         zi = clamp(zi, 0.0, d)
 
         return ssf, zi, exfilt
-
     end
 end
 
@@ -207,8 +216,21 @@ Kinematic wave for lateral subsurface flow for a single cell and timestep, based
 Returns lateral subsurface flow `ssf`, water table depth `zi` and exfiltration rate
 `exfilt`.
 """
-function kinematic_wave_ssf(ssfin, ssf_prev, zi_prev, r, kh, slope, theta_e, d, dt, dx, dw, ssfmax)
-
+function kinematic_wave_ssf(
+    ssfin,
+    ssf_prev,
+    zi_prev,
+    r,
+    slope,
+    theta_e,
+    d,
+    dt,
+    dx,
+    dw,
+    ssfmax,
+    kh_profile::KhLayered,
+    i,
+)
     epsilon = 1.0e-12
     max_iters = 3000
 
@@ -219,7 +241,7 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(ssfin, ssf_prev, zi_prev, r, kh, slope, theta_e, d,
         ssf = (ssf_prev + ssfin) / 2.0
         count = 1
         # celerity (Cn)
-        Cn = (slope * kh) / theta_e
+        Cn = (slope * kh_profile.kh[i]) / theta_e
         # constant term of the continuity equation for Newton-Raphson
         c = (dt / dx) * ssfin + (1.0 / Cn) * ssf_prev + r
         # continuity equation of which solution should be zero
@@ -264,14 +286,12 @@ function kinematic_wave_ssf(ssfin, ssf_prev, zi_prev, r, kh, slope, theta_e, d,
 end
 
 """
-    accucapacitystate!(material, network, capacity) -> material
+    accucapacitystate!(material, network, capacity)
 
 Transport of material downstream with a limited transport capacity over a directed graph.
 Mutates the material input. The network is expected to hold a graph and order field, where
 the graph implements the Graphs interface, and the order is a valid topological ordering
 such as that returned by `Graphs.topological_sort_by_dfs`.
-
-Returns the material state after transport.
 """
 function accucapacitystate!(material, network, capacity)
     (; graph, order) = network
@@ -289,7 +309,7 @@ function accucapacitystate!(material, network, capacity)
             error("bifurcations not supported")
         end
     end
-    return material
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -298,19 +318,19 @@ end
 Non mutating version of `accucapacitystate!`.
 """
 function accucapacitystate(material, network, capacity)
-    accucapacitystate!(copy(material), network, capacity)
+    material = copy(material)
+    accucapacitystate!(material, network, capacity)
+    return material
 end
 
 """
-    accucapacityflux!(flux, material, network, capacity) -> flux, material
+    accucapacityflux!(flux, material, network, capacity)
 
 Transport of material downstream with a limited transport capacity over a directed graph.
 Updates the material input, and overwrites the flux input, not using existing values. The
 network is expected to hold a graph and order field, where the graph implements the Graphs
 interface, and the order is a valid topological ordering such as that returned by
 `Graphs.topological_sort_by_dfs`.
-
-Returns the flux (material leaving each cell), and material (left after transport).
 """
 function accucapacityflux!(flux, material, network, capacity)
     (; graph, order) = network
@@ -329,7 +349,7 @@ function accucapacityflux!(flux, material, network, capacity)
             error("bifurcations not supported")
         end
     end
-    return flux, material
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -338,7 +358,10 @@ end
 Non mutating version of `accucapacityflux!`.
 """
 function accucapacityflux(material, network, capacity)
-    accucapacityflux!(zero(material), copy(material), network, capacity)
+    flux = zero(material)
+    material = copy(material)
+    accucapacityflux!(flux, material, network, capacity)
+    return flux, material
 end
 
 """
@@ -349,9 +372,9 @@ Lateral snow transport. Transports snow downhill. Mutates `snow` and `snowwater`
 function lateral_snow_transport!(snow, snowwater, slope, network)
     snowflux_frac = min.(0.5, slope ./ 5.67) .* min.(1.0, snow ./ 10000.0)
     maxflux = snowflux_frac .* snow
-    snow = accucapacitystate!(snow, network, maxflux)
-    snowwater = accucapacitystate!(snowwater, network, snowwater .* snowflux_frac)
-    return snow, snowwater
+    accucapacitystate!(snow, network, maxflux)
+    accucapacitystate!(snowwater, network, snowwater .* snowflux_frac)
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -373,7 +396,6 @@ function local_inertial_flow(
     froude_limit,
     dt,
 )
-
     slope = (zs1 - zs0) / length
     pow_R = cbrt(R * R * R * R)
     unit = one(hf)
@@ -411,15 +433,13 @@ function local_inertial_flow(
     froude_limit,
     dt,
 )
-
     slope = (zs1 - zs0) / length
     unit = one(theta)
     half = oftype(theta, 0.5)
     pow_hf = cbrt(hf * hf * hf * hf * hf * hf * hf)
 
     q = (
-        ((theta * q0 + half * (unit - theta) * (qu + qd)) - g * hf * width * dt * slope) /
-        (unit + g * dt * mannings_n_sq * abs(q0) / (pow_hf * width))
+        ((theta * q0 + half * (unit - theta) * (qu + qd)) - g * hf * width * dt * slope) / (unit + g * dt * mannings_n_sq * abs(q0) / (pow_hf * width))
     )
     # if froude number > 1.0, limit flow
     if froude_limit
diff --git a/src/io.jl b/src/io.jl
index 3b7c63499..93ec265a0 100644
--- a/src/io.jl
+++ b/src/io.jl
@@ -5,12 +5,15 @@ Output data can be written to netCDF or CSV files.
 For configuration files we use TOML.
 =#
 
+#TODO (v1.0): check if mapping of variables (input and output) in TOML file should be
+#simplified. Direct mapping is now used.
+
 """Turn "a.aa.aaa" into (:a, :aa, :aaa)"""
 symbols(s) = Tuple(Symbol(x) for x in split(s, '.'))
 
 """Turn symbols"a.aa.aaa" into (:a, :aa, :aaa)"""
 macro symbols_str(s)
-    Tuple(Symbol(x) for x in split(s, '.'))
+    return Tuple(Symbol(x) for x in split(s, '.'))
 end
 
 "Get a nested field using a tuple of Symbols"
@@ -34,8 +37,8 @@ if it exists. It behaves largely like a distionary, but it overloads `getpropert
 `setproperty` to support syntax like `config.model.reinit = false`.
 """
 struct Config
-    dict::Dict{String,Any}  # nested key value mapping of all settings
-    path::Union{String,Nothing}  # path to the TOML file, or nothing
+    dict::Dict{String, Any}  # nested key value mapping of all settings
+    path::Union{String, Nothing}  # path to the TOML file, or nothing
 end
 
 Config(path::AbstractString) = Config(TOML.parsefile(path), path)
@@ -52,7 +55,8 @@ end
 
 function Base.setproperty!(config::Config, f::Symbol, x)
     dict = Dict(config)
-    return dict[String(f)] = x
+    dict[String(f)] = x
+    return nothing
 end
 
 "Get a value from the Config with either the key or an alias of the key."
@@ -127,7 +131,7 @@ function ncvar_name_modifier(var; config = nothing)
                 if length(var[dim_name]) > 1
                     # if modifier is provided as a list for each dim item
                     indices = []
-                    for i = 1:length(var[dim_name])
+                    for i in 1:length(var[dim_name])
                         index = get_index_dimension(var, config, var[dim_name][i])
                         @info "NetCDF parameter `$ncname` is modified with scale `$(scale[i])` and offset `$(offset[i])` at index `$index`."
                         push!(indices, index)
@@ -178,31 +182,35 @@ function get_at(ds::CFDataset, varname::AbstractString, i)
 end
 
 function get_param_res(model)
-    Dict(
-        symbols"vertical.precipitation" => model.lateral.river.reservoir.precipitation,
-        symbols"vertical.potential_evaporation" =>
+    return Dict(
+        symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation" =>
+            model.lateral.river.reservoir.precipitation,
+        symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation" =>
             model.lateral.river.reservoir.evaporation,
     )
 end
 
 function get_param_lake(model)
-    Dict(
-        symbols"vertical.precipitation" => model.lateral.river.lake.precipitation,
-        symbols"vertical.potential_evaporation" => model.lateral.river.lake.evaporation,
+    return Dict(
+        symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation" =>
+            model.lateral.river.lake.precipitation,
+        symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation" =>
+            model.lateral.river.lake.evaporation,
     )
 end
 
-mover_params = (symbols"vertical.precipitation", symbols"vertical.potential_evaporation")
+mover_params = (
+    symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+    symbols"vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
+)
 
-function load_fixed_forcing(model)
+function load_fixed_forcing!(model)
     (; reader, network, config) = model
     (; forcing_parameters) = reader
 
     do_reservoirs = get(config.model, "reservoirs", false)::Bool
     do_lakes = get(config.model, "lakes", false)::Bool
 
-    mover_params =
-        (symbols"vertical.precipitation", symbols"vertical.potential_evaporation")
     reverse_indices = network.land.reverse_indices
     if do_reservoirs
         sel_reservoirs = network.reservoir.indices_coverage
@@ -237,6 +245,7 @@ function load_fixed_forcing(model)
             end
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 "Get dynamic netCDF input for the given time"
@@ -303,7 +312,7 @@ function update_forcing!(model)
         param_vector .= data_sel
     end
 
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -327,6 +336,7 @@ function load_dynamic_input!(model)
     if haskey(model.config.input, "cyclic")
         update_cyclic!(model)
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 "Get cyclic netCDF input for the given time"
@@ -355,6 +365,7 @@ function update_cyclic!(model)
             end
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -368,7 +379,7 @@ https://github.com/Alexander-Barth/NCDatasets.jl/issues/106
 Note that using this will prevent automatic garbage collection and thus closure of the
 NCDataset.
 """
-const nc_handles = Dict{String,NCDataset{Nothing}}()
+const nc_handles = Dict{String, NCDataset{Nothing}}()
 
 "Safely create a netCDF file, even if it has already been opened for creation"
 function create_tracked_netcdf(path)
@@ -402,7 +413,7 @@ function setup_scalar_netcdf(
         ds,
         "time",
         Float64,
-        ("time",),
+        ("time",);
         attrib = ["units" => time_units, "calendar" => calendar],
     )
     set_extradim_netcdf(ds, extra_dim)
@@ -413,7 +424,7 @@ function setup_scalar_netcdf(
             ds,
             nc.location_dim,
             nc.locations,
-            (nc.location_dim,),
+            (nc.location_dim,);
             attrib = ["cf_role" => "timeseries_id"],
         )
         v = param(modelmap, nc.par)
@@ -422,7 +433,7 @@ function setup_scalar_netcdf(
                 ds,
                 nc.var,
                 float_type,
-                (nc.location_dim, "time"),
+                (nc.location_dim, "time");
                 attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
             )
         elseif eltype(v) <: SVector
@@ -432,7 +443,7 @@ function setup_scalar_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     nc.var,
                     float_type,
-                    (nc.location_dim, "time"),
+                    (nc.location_dim, "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                 )
             else
@@ -440,7 +451,7 @@ function setup_scalar_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     nc.var,
                     float_type,
-                    (nc.location_dim, extra_dim.name, "time"),
+                    (nc.location_dim, extra_dim.name, "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                 )
             end
@@ -456,22 +467,16 @@ function set_extradim_netcdf(
     ds,
     extra_dim::NamedTuple{
         (:name, :value),
-        Tuple{String,Vector{T}},
-    } where {T<:Union{String,Float64}},
+        Tuple{String, Vector{T}},
+    } where {T <: Union{String, Float64}},
 )
     # the axis attribute `Z` is required to import this type of 3D data by Delft-FEWS the
     # values of this dimension `extra_dim.value` should be of type Float64
     if extra_dim.name == "layer"
         attributes =
             ["long_name" => "layer_index", "standard_name" => "layer_index", "axis" => "Z"]
-    elseif extra_dim.name == "classes"
-        attributes = [
-            "long_name" => extra_dim.name,
-            "standard_name" => extra_dim.name,
-            "axis" => "Z",
-        ]
     end
-    defVar(ds, extra_dim.name, extra_dim.value, (extra_dim.name,), attrib = attributes)
+    defVar(ds, extra_dim.name, extra_dim.value, (extra_dim.name,); attrib = attributes)
     return nothing
 end
 
@@ -490,7 +495,6 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
     float_type = Float32,
     deflatelevel = 0,
 )
-
     ds = create_tracked_netcdf(path)
     defDim(ds, "time", Inf)  # unlimited
     if sizeinmetres
@@ -498,7 +502,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
             ds,
             "x",
             ncx,
-            ("x",),
+            ("x",);
             attrib = [
                 "long_name" => "x coordinate of projection",
                 "standard_name" => "projection_x_coordinate",
@@ -511,7 +515,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
             ds,
             "y",
             ncy,
-            ("y",),
+            ("y",);
             attrib = [
                 "long_name" => "y coordinate of projection",
                 "standard_name" => "projection_y_coordinate",
@@ -526,7 +530,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
             ds,
             "lon",
             ncx,
-            ("lon",),
+            ("lon",);
             attrib = [
                 "long_name" => "longitude",
                 "standard_name" => "longitude",
@@ -538,7 +542,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
             ds,
             "lat",
             ncy,
-            ("lat",),
+            ("lat",);
             attrib = [
                 "long_name" => "latitude",
                 "standard_name" => "latitude",
@@ -553,7 +557,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
         ds,
         "time",
         Float64,
-        ("time",),
+        ("time",);
         attrib = ["units" => time_units, "calendar" => calendar],
         deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
     )
@@ -565,7 +569,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     key,
                     float_type,
-                    ("x", "y", "time"),
+                    ("x", "y", "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                     deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
                 )
@@ -575,7 +579,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     key,
                     float_type,
-                    ("x", "y", extra_dim.name, "time"),
+                    ("x", "y", extra_dim.name, "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                     deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
                 )
@@ -591,7 +595,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     key,
                     float_type,
-                    ("lon", "lat", "time"),
+                    ("lon", "lat", "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                     deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
                 )
@@ -601,7 +605,7 @@ function setup_grid_netcdf(
                     ds,
                     key,
                     float_type,
-                    ("lon", "lat", extra_dim.name, "time"),
+                    ("lon", "lat", extra_dim.name, "time");
                     attrib = ["_FillValue" => float_type(NaN)],
                     deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
                 )
@@ -623,27 +627,27 @@ end
 struct NCReader{T}
     dataset::CFDataset
     dataset_times::Vector{T}
-    cyclic_dataset::Union{NCDataset,Nothing}
-    cyclic_times::Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},Vector{Tuple{Int,Int}}}
-    forcing_parameters::Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},NamedTuple}
-    cyclic_parameters::Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},NamedTuple}
+    cyclic_dataset::Union{NCDataset, Nothing}
+    cyclic_times::Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, Vector{Tuple{Int, Int}}}
+    forcing_parameters::Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, NamedTuple}
+    cyclic_parameters::Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, NamedTuple}
 end
 
 struct Writer
-    dataset::Union{NCDataset,Nothing}           # dataset (netCDF) for grid data
-    parameters::Dict{String,Any}                # mapping of netCDF variable names to model parameters (arrays)
-    nc_path::Union{String,Nothing}              # path netCDF file (grid data)
-    csv_path::Union{String,Nothing}             # path of CSV file
+    dataset::Union{NCDataset, Nothing}           # dataset (netCDF) for grid data
+    parameters::Dict{String, Any}                # mapping of netCDF variable names to model parameters (arrays)
+    nc_path::Union{String, Nothing}              # path netCDF file (grid data)
+    csv_path::Union{String, Nothing}             # path of CSV file
     csv_cols::Vector                            # model parameter (arrays) and associated reducer function for CSV output
     csv_io::IO                                  # file handle to CSV file
-    state_dataset::Union{NCDataset,Nothing}     # dataset with model states (netCDF)
-    state_parameters::Dict{String,Any}          # mapping of netCDF variable names to model states (arrays)
-    state_nc_path::Union{String,Nothing}        # path netCDF file with states
-    dataset_scalar::Union{NCDataset,Nothing}    # dataset (netCDF) for scalar data
+    state_dataset::Union{NCDataset, Nothing}     # dataset with model states (netCDF)
+    state_parameters::Dict{String, Any}          # mapping of netCDF variable names to model states (arrays)
+    state_nc_path::Union{String, Nothing}        # path netCDF file with states
+    dataset_scalar::Union{NCDataset, Nothing}    # dataset (netCDF) for scalar data
     nc_scalar::Vector                           # model parameter (arrays) and associated reducer function for netCDF scalar output
     ncvars_dims::Vector                         # model parameter (String) and associated netCDF variable, location dimension and location name for scalar data
-    nc_scalar_path::Union{String,Nothing}       # path netCDF file (scalar data)
-    extra_dim::Union{NamedTuple,Nothing}        # name and values for extra dimension (to store SVectors)
+    nc_scalar_path::Union{String, Nothing}       # path netCDF file (scalar data)
+    extra_dim::Union{NamedTuple, Nothing}        # name and values for extra dimension (to store SVectors)
 end
 
 function prepare_reader(config)
@@ -672,7 +676,7 @@ function prepare_reader(config)
     if isempty(dynamic_paths)
         error("No files found with name '$glob_path' in '$glob_dir'")
     end
-    dataset = NCDataset(dynamic_paths, aggdim = "time", deferopen = false)
+    dataset = NCDataset(dynamic_paths; aggdim = "time", deferopen = false)
 
     if haskey(dataset["time"].attrib, "_FillValue")
         @warn "Time dimension contains `_FillValue` attribute, this is not in line with CF conventions."
@@ -695,7 +699,7 @@ function prepare_reader(config)
     do_cyclic = haskey(config.input, "cyclic")
 
     # create map from internal location to netCDF variable name for forcing parameters
-    forcing_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},NamedTuple}()
+    forcing_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, NamedTuple}()
     for par in config.input.forcing
         fields = symbols(par)
         ncname, mod = ncvar_name_modifier(param(config.input, fields))
@@ -711,8 +715,8 @@ function prepare_reader(config)
     # (memory usage))
     if do_cyclic == true
         cyclic_dataset = NCDataset(cyclic_path)
-        cyclic_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},NamedTuple}()
-        cyclic_times = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},Vector{Tuple{Int,Int}}}()
+        cyclic_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, NamedTuple}()
+        cyclic_times = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, Vector{Tuple{Int, Int}}}()
         for par in config.input.cyclic
             fields = symbols(par)
             ncname, mod = ncvar_name_modifier(param(config.input, fields))
@@ -726,9 +730,9 @@ function prepare_reader(config)
             @info "Set `$par` using netCDF variable `$ncname` as cyclic parameter, with `$(length(cyclic_nc_times))` timesteps."
         end
     else
-        cyclic_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},NamedTuple}()
+        cyclic_parameters = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, NamedTuple}()
         cyclic_dataset = nothing
-        cyclic_times = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},Vector{Tuple{Int,Int}}}()
+        cyclic_times = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, Vector{Tuple{Int, Int}}}()
     end
 
     # check if there is overlap
@@ -759,7 +763,7 @@ function locations_map(ds, mapname, config)
         config,
         mapname;
         optional = false,
-        type = Union{Int,Missing},
+        type = Union{Int, Missing},
         allow_missing = true,
     )
     ids = unique(skipmissing(map_2d))
@@ -834,13 +838,13 @@ function flat!(d, path, el::Dict)
     for (k, v) in pairs(el)
         flat!(d, string(path, '.', k), v)
     end
-    return d
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function flat!(d, path, el)
     k = symbols(path)
     d[k] = el
-    return d
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -872,7 +876,7 @@ Dict(
 ```
 """
 function ncnames(dict)
-    ncnames_dict = Dict{Tuple{Symbol,Vararg{Symbol}},String}()
+    ncnames_dict = Dict{Tuple{Symbol, Vararg{Symbol}}, String}()
     for (k, v) in dict
         if v isa Dict  # ignore top level values (e.g. output.path)
             flat!(ncnames_dict, k, v)
@@ -887,7 +891,7 @@ end
 Create a Dict that maps parameter netCDF names to arrays in the Model.
 """
 function out_map(ncnames_dict, modelmap)
-    output_map = Dict{String,Any}()
+    output_map = Dict{String, Any}()
     for (par, ncname) in ncnames_dict
         A = param(modelmap, par)
         output_map[ncname] = (par = par, vector = A)
@@ -895,7 +899,6 @@ function out_map(ncnames_dict, modelmap)
     return output_map
 end
 
-
 function get_reducer_func(col, rev_inds, args...)
     parameter = col["parameter"]
     if occursin("reservoir", parameter)
@@ -943,12 +946,12 @@ function prepare_writer(
             calendar,
             time_units,
             extra_dim,
-            sizeinmetres,
+            sizeinmetres;
             deflatelevel = deflatelevel,
         )
     else
         nc_path = nothing
-        output_map = Dict{String,Any}()
+        output_map = Dict{String, Any}()
         ds = nothing
     end
 
@@ -972,7 +975,7 @@ function prepare_writer(
         )
     else
         ds_outstate = nothing
-        state_map = Dict{String,Any}()
+        state_map = Dict{String, Any}()
         nc_state_path = nothing
     end
 
@@ -1037,7 +1040,6 @@ function prepare_writer(
         csv_io = IOBuffer()
     end
 
-
     return Writer(
         ds,
         output_map,
@@ -1076,7 +1078,7 @@ function write_netcdf_timestep(model, dataset)
                 dataset[nc["name"]][:, time_index] .= v
             else
                 nlayer = length(first(A))
-                for i = 1:nlayer
+                for i in 1:nlayer
                     v = nt.reducer(getindex.(A, i))
                     dataset[nc["name"]][:, i, time_index] .= v
                 end
@@ -1094,7 +1096,7 @@ function write_netcdf_timestep(model, dataset, parameters)
 
     time_index = add_time(dataset, clock.time)
 
-    buffer = zeros(Union{Float,Missing}, size(model.network.land.reverse_indices))
+    buffer = zeros(Union{Float, Missing}, size(model.network.land.reverse_indices))
     for (key, val) in parameters
         (; par, vector) = val
         sel = active_indices(network, par)
@@ -1108,7 +1110,7 @@ function write_netcdf_timestep(model, dataset, parameters)
             dataset[key][:, :, time_index] = buffer
         elseif elemtype <: SVector
             nlayer = length(first(vector))
-            for i = 1:nlayer
+            for i in 1:nlayer
                 # ensure no other information is written
                 fill!(buffer, missing)
                 buffer[sel] .= getindex.(vector, i)
@@ -1213,7 +1215,7 @@ end
 
 "Mapping from reducer strings in the TOML to functions"
 function reducerfunction(reducer::AbstractString)
-    functionmap = Dict{String,Function}(
+    functionmap = Dict{String, Function}(
         "maximum" => maximum,
         "minimum" => minimum,
         "mean" => mean,
@@ -1244,13 +1246,13 @@ function reducer(col, rev_inds, x_nc, y_nc, config, dataset, fileformat)
             config,
             mapname;
             optional = false,
-            type = Union{Int,Missing},
+            type = Union{Int, Missing},
             allow_missing = true,
         )
         @info "Adding scalar output for a map with a reducer function." fileformat param mapname reducer_name
         ids = unique(skipmissing(map_2d))
         # from id to list of internal indices
-        inds = Dict{Int,Vector{Int}}(id => Vector{Int}() for id in ids)
+        inds = Dict{Int, Vector{Int}}(id => Vector{Int}() for id in ids)
         for i in eachindex(map_2d)
             v = map_2d[i]
             ismissing(v) && continue
@@ -1326,7 +1328,7 @@ function write_csv_row(model)
             print(io, ',', el)
         end
     end
-    println(io)
+    return println(io)
 end
 
 "From a time and a calendar, create the right CFTime DateTimeX type"
@@ -1346,24 +1348,24 @@ function reset_clock!(clock::Clock, config)
     clock.time = new_clock.time
     clock.iteration = new_clock.iteration
     clock.dt = new_clock.dt
-    return clock
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function advance!(clock)
     clock.iteration += 1
     clock.time += clock.dt
-    return clock
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function rewind!(clock)
     clock.iteration -= 1
     clock.time -= clock.dt
-    return clock
+    return nothing
 end
 
 "Read a rating curve from CSV into a NamedTuple of vectors"
 function read_sh_csv(path)
-    data, header = readdlm(path, ',', Float, header = true)
+    data, header = readdlm(path, ',', Float; header = true)
     names = vec(uppercase.(header))
     idx_h = findfirst(==("H"), names)
     idx_s = findfirst(==("S"), names)
@@ -1377,14 +1379,14 @@ end
 
 "Read a specific storage curve from CSV into a NamedTuple of vectors"
 function read_hq_csv(path)
-    data = readdlm(path, ',', Float, skipstart = 1)
+    data = readdlm(path, ',', Float; skipstart = 1)
     # Q is a matrix with 365 columns, one for each day in the year
     return (H = data[:, 1], Q = data[:, 2:end])
 end
 
 # these represent the type of the rating curve and specific storage data
-const SH = NamedTuple{(:H, :S),Tuple{Vector{Float},Vector{Float}}}
-const HQ = NamedTuple{(:H, :Q),Tuple{Vector{Float},Matrix{Float}}}
+const SH = NamedTuple{(:H, :S), Tuple{Vector{Float}, Vector{Float}}}
+const HQ = NamedTuple{(:H, :Q), Tuple{Vector{Float}, Matrix{Float}}}
 
 is_increasing(v) = last(v) > first(v)
 
@@ -1426,7 +1428,6 @@ using `nc_dim_name`.
 """
 nc_dim(ds::CFDataset, name) = ds[nc_dim_name(ds, name)]
 
-
 """
     internal_dim_name(name::Symbol)
 
@@ -1437,7 +1438,7 @@ function internal_dim_name(name::Symbol)
         return :x
     elseif name in (:y, :lat, :latitude)
         return :y
-    elseif name in (:time, :layer, :flood_depth, :classes)
+    elseif name in (:time, :layer, :flood_depth)
         return name
     elseif startswith(string(name), "time")
         return :time
@@ -1497,7 +1498,7 @@ consider it increasing, going from the top layer (1) to deeper layers. This is t
 accepting data that we have accepted before.
 """
 function dim_directions(ds::CFDataset, dim_names)
-    pairs = Pair{Symbol,Bool}[]
+    pairs = Pair{Symbol, Bool}[]
     for d in dim_names
         if d == :layer && !(haskey(ds, "layer"))
             inc = true
@@ -1522,8 +1523,6 @@ function permute_data(data, dim_names)
     @assert ndims(data) == length(dim_names)
     if :layer in dim_names
         desired_order = (:x, :y, :layer)
-    elseif :classes in dim_names
-        desired_order = (:x, :y, :classes)
     elseif :flood_depth in dim_names
         desired_order = (:x, :y, :flood_depth)
     else
@@ -1567,12 +1566,6 @@ function reverse_data!(data, dims_increasing)
             y = dims_increasing.y,
             flood_depth = dims_increasing.flood_depth,
         )
-    elseif length(dims_increasing) == 3 && haskey(dims_increasing, :classes)
-        dims_increasing_ordered = (
-            x = dims_increasing.x,
-            y = dims_increasing.y,
-            classes = dims_increasing.classes,
-        )
     else
         error("Unsupported number of dimensions")
     end
@@ -1609,7 +1602,7 @@ function read_x_axis(ds::CFDataset)::Vector{Float64}
             return sort!(Float64.(ds[candidate][:]))
         end
     end
-    error("no x axis found in $(path(ds))")
+    return error("no x axis found in $(path(ds))")
 end
 
 """
@@ -1625,32 +1618,27 @@ function read_y_axis(ds::CFDataset)::Vector{Float64}
             return sort!(Float64.(ds[candidate][:]))
         end
     end
-    error("no y axis found in $(path(ds))")
+    return error("no y axis found in $(path(ds))")
 end
 
-"Get `index` for dimension name `layer` or `classes` based on `model`"
+"Get `index` for dimension name `layer` based on `model`"
 function get_index_dimension(var, model)::Int
     (; vertical) = model
     if haskey(var, "layer")
-        inds = collect(1:vertical.maxlayers)
+        inds = collect(1:(vertical.soil.parameters.maxlayers))
         index = inds[var["layer"]]
-    elseif haskey(var, "class")
-        index = findfirst(x -> x == var["class"], vertical.classes)
     else
         error("Unrecognized or missing dimension name to index $(var)")
     end
     return index
 end
 
-"Get `index` for dimension name `layer` or `classes` based on `config` (TOML file)"
+"Get `index` for dimension name `layer` based on `config` (TOML file)"
 function get_index_dimension(var, config::Config, dim_value)::Int
     if haskey(var, "layer")
         v = get(config.model, "thicknesslayers", Float[])
-        inds = collect(1:length(v)+1)
+        inds = collect(1:(length(v) + 1))
         index = inds[dim_value]
-    elseif haskey(var, "class")
-        classes = get(config.model, "classes", "")
-        index = findfirst(x -> x == dim_value, classes)
     else
         error("Unrecognized or missing dimension name to index $(var)")
     end
diff --git a/src/logging.jl b/src/logging.jl
index 3a9a3d7e4..eec1873db 100644
--- a/src/logging.jl
+++ b/src/logging.jl
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ function format_message(io::IO, args)::Nothing
 end
 
 "Initialize a logger, which is different if `fews_run` is set in the Config."
-function init_logger(config::Config; silent = false)::Tuple{TeeLogger,IOStream}
+function init_logger(config::Config; silent = false)::Tuple{TeeLogger, IOStream}
     loglevel = parse_loglevel(get(config, "loglevel", "info"))
     path_log = output_path(config, get(config, "path_log", "log.txt"))
     mkpath(dirname(path_log))
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ function init_logger(config::Config; silent = false)::Tuple{TeeLogger,IOStream}
         # https://github.com/JuliaLogging/LoggingExtras.jl/issues/46#issuecomment-803716480
         ConsoleLogger(
             IOContext(log_handle, :compact => false, :limit => false, :color => false),
-            loglevel,
+            loglevel;
             show_limited = false,
         )
     end
diff --git a/src/parameters.jl b/src/parameters.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f2d2d582a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/parameters.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+"Struct to store (shared) vegetation parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct VegetationParameters{T}
+    # Leaf area index [m² m⁻²]
+    leaf_area_index::Union{Vector{T}, Nothing} | "m2 m-2"
+    # Storage woody part of vegetation [mm]
+    storage_wood::Union{Vector{T}, Nothing} | "mm"
+    # Extinction coefficient [-] (to calculate canopy gap fraction)
+    kext::Union{Vector{T}, Nothing} | "-"
+    # Specific leaf storage [mm]
+    storage_specific_leaf::Union{Vector{T}, Nothing} | "mm"
+    # Canopy gap fraction [-]
+    canopygapfraction::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Maximum canopy storage [mm] 
+    cmax::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Rooting depth [mm]
+    rootingdepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Crop coefficient Kc [-]
+    kc::Vector{T} | "-"
+end
+
+"Initialize (shared) vegetation parameters"
+function VegetationParameters(nc, config, inds)
+    n = length(inds)
+    rootingdepth = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.rootingdepth";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 750.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    kc = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.kc";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    if haskey(config.input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set, "leaf_area_index")
+        storage_specific_leaf = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.storage_specific_leaf";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        storage_wood = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.storage_wood";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        kext = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.kext";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        vegetation_parameter_set = VegetationParameters(;
+            leaf_area_index = fill(mv, n),
+            storage_wood,
+            kext,
+            storage_specific_leaf,
+            canopygapfraction = fill(mv, n),
+            cmax = fill(mv, n),
+            rootingdepth,
+            kc,
+        )
+    else
+        canopygapfraction = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.canopygapfraction";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.1,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        cmax = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.cmax";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 1.0,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        vegetation_parameter_set = VegetationParameters(;
+            leaf_area_index = nothing,
+            storage_wood = nothing,
+            kext = nothing,
+            storage_specific_leaf = nothing,
+            canopygapfraction,
+            cmax,
+            rootingdepth,
+            kc,
+        )
+    end
+    return vegetation_parameter_set
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/reservoir_lake.jl b/src/reservoir_lake.jl
index 5060c842d..edc55a91f 100644
--- a/src/reservoir_lake.jl
+++ b/src/reservoir_lake.jl
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct SimpleReservoir{T}
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"                   # Model time step [s]
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SimpleReservoir{T}
+    dt::T                                               # Model time step [s]
     maxvolume::Vector{T} | "m3"                         # maximum storage (above which water is spilled) [m³]
     area::Vector{T} | "m2"                              # reservoir area [m²]
     maxrelease::Vector{T} | "m3 s-1"                    # maximum amount that can be released if below spillway [m³ s⁻¹]
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@
     end
 end
 
-
 function initialize_simple_reservoir(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, dt)
     # read only reservoir data if reservoirs true
     # allow reservoirs only in river cells
@@ -132,7 +131,7 @@ function initialize_simple_reservoir(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, dt)
 
     n = length(resarea)
     @info "Read `$n` reservoir locations."
-    reservoirs = SimpleReservoir{Float}(
+    reservoirs = SimpleReservoir{Float}(;
         dt = dt,
         demand = resdemand,
         maxrelease = resmaxrelease,
@@ -167,7 +166,7 @@ Update a single reservoir at position `i`.
 This is called from within the kinematic wave loop, therefore updating only for a single
 element rather than all at once.
 """
-function update(res::SimpleReservoir, i, inflow, timestepsecs)
+function update!(res::SimpleReservoir, i, inflow, timestepsecs)
 
     # limit lake evaporation based on total available volume [m³]
     precipitation = 0.001 * res.precipitation[i] * (timestepsecs / res.dt) * res.area[i]
@@ -201,21 +200,21 @@ function update(res::SimpleReservoir, i, inflow, timestepsecs)
     res.volume[i] = vol
     res.actevap[i] += 1000.0 * (actevap / res.area[i])
 
-    return res
+    return nothing
 end
 
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct Lake{T}
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"           # Model time step [s]
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct Lake{T}
+    dt::T                                       # Model time step [s]
     lowerlake_ind::Vector{Int} | "-"            # Index of lower lake (linked lakes)
     area::Vector{T} | "m2"                      # lake area [m²]
-    maxstorage::Vector{Union{T,Missing}} | "m3" # lake maximum storage from rating curve 1 [m³]
+    maxstorage::Vector{Union{T, Missing}} | "m3" # lake maximum storage from rating curve 1 [m³]
     threshold::Vector{T} | "m"                  # water level threshold H₀ [m] below that level outflow is zero
     storfunc::Vector{Int} | "-"                 # type of lake storage curve, 1: S = AH, 2: S = f(H) from lake data and interpolation
     outflowfunc::Vector{Int} | "-"              # type of lake rating curve, 1: Q = f(H) from lake data and interpolation, 2: General Q = b(H - H₀)ᵉ, 3: Case of Puls Approach Q = b(H - H₀)²
     b::Vector{T} | "m3/2 s-1 (if e=3/2)"        # rating curve coefficient
     e::Vector{T} | "-"                          # rating curve exponent
-    sh::Vector{Union{SH,Missing}}               # data for storage curve
-    hq::Vector{Union{HQ,Missing}}               # data for rating curve
+    sh::Vector{Union{SH, Missing}}               # data for storage curve
+    hq::Vector{Union{HQ, Missing}}               # data for rating curve
     waterlevel::Vector{T} | "m"                 # waterlevel H [m] of lake
     inflow::Vector{T} | "m3"                    # inflow to the lake [m³]
     storage::Vector{T} | "m3"                   # storage lake [m³]
@@ -363,13 +362,13 @@ function initialize_lake(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, dt)
 
     @info "Read `$n_lakes` lake locations."
 
-    sh = Vector{Union{SH,Missing}}(missing, n_lakes)
-    hq = Vector{Union{HQ,Missing}}(missing, n_lakes)
+    sh = Vector{Union{SH, Missing}}(missing, n_lakes)
+    hq = Vector{Union{HQ, Missing}}(missing, n_lakes)
     lowerlake_ind = fill(0, n_lakes)
     # lake CSV parameter files are expected in the same directory as path_static
     path = dirname(input_path(config, config.input.path_static))
 
-    for i = 1:n_lakes
+    for i in 1:n_lakes
         lakeloc = lakelocs[i]
         if linked_lakelocs[i] > 0
             lowerlake_ind[i] = only(findall(x -> x == linked_lakelocs[i], lakelocs))
@@ -398,7 +397,7 @@ function initialize_lake(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, dt)
         end
     end
     n = length(lakearea)
-    lakes = Lake{Float}(
+    lakes = Lake{Float}(;
         dt = dt,
         lowerlake_ind = lowerlake_ind,
         area = lakearea,
@@ -430,7 +429,6 @@ function initialize_lake(config, nc, inds_riv, nriv, pits, dt)
     pits
 end
 
-
 "Determine the initial storage depending on the storage function"
 function initialize_storage(storfunc, area, waterlevel, sh)
     storage = similar(area)
@@ -459,7 +457,7 @@ end
 
 "Determine the maximum storage for lakes with a rating curve of type 1"
 function maximum_storage(storfunc, outflowfunc, area, sh, hq)
-    maxstorage = Vector{Union{Float,Missing}}(missing, length(area))
+    maxstorage = Vector{Union{Float, Missing}}(missing, length(area))
     # maximum storage is based on the maximum water level (H) value in the H-Q table
     for i in eachindex(maxstorage)
         if outflowfunc[i] == 1
@@ -473,7 +471,6 @@ function maximum_storage(storfunc, outflowfunc, area, sh, hq)
     return maxstorage
 end
 
-
 function interpolate_linear(x, xp, fp)
     if x <= minimum(xp)
         return minimum(fp)
@@ -494,8 +491,7 @@ Update a single lake at position `i`.
 This is called from within the kinematic wave loop, therefore updating only for a single
 element rather than all at once.
 """
-function update(lake::Lake, i, inflow, doy, timestepsecs)
-
+function update!(lake::Lake, i, inflow, doy, timestepsecs)
     lo = lake.lowerlake_ind[i]
     has_lowerlake = lo != 0
 
@@ -532,7 +528,6 @@ function update(lake::Lake, i, inflow, doy, timestepsecs)
 
     ### Linearisation for specific storage/rating curves ###
     if lake.outflowfunc[i] == 1 || lake.outflowfunc[i] == 2
-
         diff_wl = has_lowerlake ? lake.waterlevel[i] - lake.waterlevel[lo] : 0.0
 
         storage_input = (lake.storage[i] + precipitation - actevap) / timestepsecs + inflow
@@ -592,7 +587,6 @@ function update(lake::Lake, i, inflow, doy, timestepsecs)
             lake.storage[lo] = lowerlake_storage
             lake.waterlevel[lo] = lowerlake_waterlevel
         end
-
     end
 
     # update values in place
@@ -603,5 +597,5 @@ function update(lake::Lake, i, inflow, doy, timestepsecs)
     lake.storage[i] = storage
     lake.actevap[i] += 1000.0 * (actevap / lake.area[i])
 
-    return lake
+    return nothing
 end
diff --git a/src/sbm.jl b/src/sbm.jl
index baab14691..7293ec082 100644
--- a/src/sbm.jl
+++ b/src/sbm.jl
@@ -1,1326 +1,141 @@
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct SBM{
-    T,
-    N,
-    M,
-    P<:Union{Paddy,Nothing},
-    NP<:Union{NonPaddy,Nothing},
-    D<:Union{NonIrrigationDemand,Nothing},
-    L<:Union{NonIrrigationDemand,Nothing},
-    I<:Union{NonIrrigationDemand,Nothing},
-    A<:Union{AllocationLand,Nothing},
-}
-    # Model time step [s]
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    # Maximum number of soil layers
-    maxlayers::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    # number of cells
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
-    # Number of soil layers
-    nlayers::Vector{Int} | "-"
-    # Number of unsaturated soil layers
-    n_unsatlayers::Vector{Int} | "-"
-    # Number of soil layers with vertical hydraulic conductivity value `kv`
-    nlayers_kv::Vector{Int} | "-"
-    # Fraction of river [-]
-    riverfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Saturated water content (porosity) [-]
-    theta_s::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Residual water content [-]
-    theta_r::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity [mm Δt⁻¹] at soil surface
-    kv_0::Vector{T}
-    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity [mm Δt⁻¹] per soil layer
-    kv::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Muliplication factor [-] applied to kv_z (vertical flow)
-    kvfrac::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Air entry pressure [cm] of soil (Brooks-Corey)
-    hb::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Soil thickness [mm]
-    soilthickness::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Thickness of soil layers [mm]
-    act_thickl::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Cumulative sum of soil layers [mm], starting at soil surface (0)
-    sumlayers::Vector{SVector{M,T}} | "mm"
-    # Infiltration capacity of the compacted areas [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    infiltcappath::Vector{T}
-    # Soil infiltration capacity [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    infiltcapsoil::Vector{T}
-    # Soil infiltration reduction factor (when soil is frozen) [-]
-    soilinfredu::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Maximum leakage [mm Δt⁻¹] from saturated zone
-    maxleakage::Vector{T}
-    # Fraction of open water (excluding rivers) [-]
-    waterfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Fraction of compacted area  [-]
-    pathfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Rooting depth [mm]
-    rootingdepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Fraction of the root length density in each soil layer [-]
-    rootfraction::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Soil water pressure head h1 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h1::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Soil water pressure head h2 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h2::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Soil water pressure head h3_high of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h3_high::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Soil water pressure head h3_low of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h3_low::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Soil water pressure head h4 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h4::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Calculated soil water pressure head h3 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
-    h3::Vector{T} | "cm"
-    # Root water uptake reduction at soil water pressure head h1 (0.0 or 1.0) [-]
-    alpha_h1::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Controls how roots are linked to water table [-]
-    rootdistpar::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Parameter [mm] controlling capillary rise
-    cap_hmax::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Coefficient [-] controlling capillary rise
-    cap_n::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Crop coefficient Kc [-]
-    kc::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Brooks-Corey power coefficient [-] for each soil layer
-    c::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Stemflow [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    stemflow::Vector{T}
-    # Throughfall [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    throughfall::Vector{T}
-    # A scaling parameter [mm⁻¹] (controls exponential decline of kv_0)
-    f::Vector{T} | "mm-1"
-    # Depth [mm] from soil surface for which exponential decline of kv_0 is valid
-    z_exp::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Depth [mm] from soil surface for which layered profile is valid
-    z_layered::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Amount of water in the unsaturated store, per layer [mm]
-    ustorelayerdepth::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "mm"
-    # Saturated store [mm]
-    satwaterdepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Pseudo-water table depth [mm] (top of the saturated zone)
-    zi::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Soilwater capacity [mm]
-    soilwatercapacity::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Canopy storage [mm]
-    canopystorage::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Maximum canopy storage [mm]
-    cmax::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Canopy gap fraction [-]
-    canopygapfraction::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Gash interception model parameter, ratio of the average evaporation from the
-    # wet canopy [mm Δt⁻¹] and the average precipitation intensity [mm Δt⁻¹] on a saturated canopy
-    e_r::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    precipitation::Vector{T}
-    # Temperature [ᵒC]
-    temperature::Vector{T} | "°C"
-    # Potential reference evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    potential_evaporation::Vector{T}
-    # Potential transpiration (after subtracting interception from potential_evaporation)
-    pottrans::Vector{T}
-    # Transpiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    transpiration::Vector{T}
-    # Actual evaporation from unsaturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    ae_ustore::Vector{T}
-    # Interception loss by evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    interception::Vector{T}
-    # Soil evaporation from unsaturated and saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    soilevap::Vector{T}
-    # Soil evaporation from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    soilevapsat::Vector{T}
-    # Actual capillary rise [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actcapflux::Vector{T}
-    # Actual transpiration from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actevapsat::Vector{T}
-    # Total actual evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actevap::Vector{T}
-    # Runoff from river based on riverfrac [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    runoff_river::Vector{T}
-    # Runoff from land based on waterfrac [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    runoff_land::Vector{T}
-    # Actual evaporation from open water (land) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    ae_openw_l::Vector{T}
-    # Actual evaporation from river [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    ae_openw_r::Vector{T}
-    # Net runoff from river [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    net_runoff_river::Vector{T}
-    # Water available for infiltration [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    avail_forinfilt::Vector{T}
-    # Actual infiltration into the unsaturated zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actinfilt::Vector{T}
-    # Actual infiltration non-compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actinfiltsoil::Vector{T}
-    # Actual infiltration compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actinfiltpath::Vector{T}
-    # Actual infiltration (compacted and the non-compacted areas) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    infiltsoilpath::Vector{T}
-    # Infiltration excess water [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    infiltexcess::Vector{T}
-    # Water that cannot infiltrate due to saturated soil (saturation excess) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    excesswater::Vector{T}
-    # Water exfiltrating during saturation excess conditions [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    exfiltsatwater::Vector{T}
-    # Water exfiltrating from unsaturated store because of change in water table [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    exfiltustore::Vector{T}
-    # Excess water for non-compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    excesswatersoil::Vector{T}
-    # Excess water for compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    excesswaterpath::Vector{T}
-    # Total surface runoff from infiltration and saturation excess (excluding actual open water evaporation) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    runoff::Vector{T}
-    # Net surface runoff (surface runoff - actual open water evaporation) [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    net_runoff::Vector{T}
-    # Volumetric water content [-] per soil layer (including theta_r and saturated zone)
-    vwc::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "-"
-    # Volumetric water content [%] per soil layer (including theta_r and saturated zone)
-    vwc_perc::Vector{SVector{N,T}} | "%"
-    # Root water storage [mm] in unsaturated and saturated zone (excluding theta_r)
-    rootstore::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Volumetric water content [-] in root zone (including theta_r and saturated zone)
-    vwc_root::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Volumetric water content [%] in root zone (including theta_r and saturated zone)
-    vwc_percroot::Vector{T} | "%"
-    # Amount of available water in the unsaturated zone [mm]
-    ustoredepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Downward flux from unsaturated to saturated zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    transfer::Vector{T}
-    # Net recharge to saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    recharge::Vector{T}
-    # Actual leakage from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    actleakage::Vector{T}
-    ### Snow parameters ###
-    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹]
-    cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
-    # Threshold temperature for snowfall [ᵒC]
-    tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Threshold temperature interval length [ᵒC]
-    tti::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Threshold temperature for snowmelt [ᵒC]
-    ttm::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Water holding capacity as fraction of current snow pack [-]
-    whc::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Soil temperature smooth factor [-]
-    w_soil::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Controls soil infiltration reduction factor when soil is frozen [-]
-    cf_soil::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Snow storage [mm]
-    snow::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Liquid water content in the snow pack [mm]
-    snowwater::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Snow melt + precipitation as rainfall [mm]
-    rainfallplusmelt::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Threshold temperature for snowfall above glacier [ᵒC]
-    g_tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹] for glacier
-    g_cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
-    # Fraction of the snowpack on top of the glacier converted into ice [Δt⁻¹]
-    g_sifrac::Vector{T} | "dt-1"
-    # Water within the glacier [mm]
-    glacierstore::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Fraction covered by a glacier [-]
-    glacierfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Top soil temperature [ᵒC]
-    tsoil::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
-    ## Interception related to leaf_area_index climatology ###
-    # Specific leaf storage [mm]
-    sl::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Storage woody part of vegetation [mm]
-    swood::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Extinction coefficient [-] (to calculate canopy gap fraction)
-    kext::Vector{T} | "-"
-    # Leaf area index [m² m⁻²]
-    leaf_area_index::Vector{T} | "m2 m-2"
-    # Water level land [mm]
-    waterlevel_land::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Water level river [mm]
-    waterlevel_river::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Total water storage (excluding floodplain volume, lakes and reservoirs) [mm]
-    total_storage::Vector{T} | "mm"
-    # Water demand structs (of arrays)
-    paddy::P | "-" | 0
-    nonpaddy::NP | "-" | 0
-    domestic::D | "-" | 0
-    livestock::L | "-" | 0
-    industry::I | "-" | 0
-    allocation::A | "-" | 0
-
-
-    function SBM{T,N,M,P,NP,D,L,I,A}(args...) where {T,N,M,P,NP,D,L,I,A}
-        equal_size_vectors(args)
-        return new(args...)
-    end
+"Land hydrology model with SBM soil model"
+@with_kw struct LandHydrologySBM{T, D, A}
+    atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing{T}
+    vegetation_parameter_set::VegetationParameters{T}
+    interception::AbstractInterceptionModel{T}
+    snow::AbstractSnowModel{T}
+    glacier::AbstractGlacierModel{T}
+    runoff::AbstractRunoffModel{T}
+    soil::SbmSoilModel
+    demand::D
+    allocation::A
+    dt::T
 end
 
-
-function initialize_canopy(nc, config, inds)
+"Initialize land hydrology model with SBM soil model"
+function LandHydrologySBM(nc, config, riverfrac, inds)
+    dt = Second(config.timestepsecs)
     n = length(inds)
-    # if leaf area index climatology provided use sl, swood and kext to calculate cmax, e_r and canopygapfraction
-    if haskey(config.input.vertical, "leaf_area_index")
-        # TODO confirm if leaf area index climatology is present in the netCDF
-        sl = ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.specific_leaf";
-            optional = false,
-            sel = inds,
-            type = Float,
-        )
-        swood = ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.storage_wood";
-            optional = false,
-            sel = inds,
-            type = Float,
-        )
-        kext =
-            ncread(nc, config, "vertical.kext"; optional = false, sel = inds, type = Float)
-        cmax = fill(mv, n)
-        e_r = fill(mv, n)
-        canopygapfraction = fill(mv, n)
-    else
-        sl = fill(mv, n)
-        swood = fill(mv, n)
-        kext = fill(mv, n)
-        # cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction only required when leaf area index climatology not provided
-        cmax = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cmax"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-        e_r =
-            ncread(nc, config, "vertical.eoverr"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.1, type = Float)
-        canopygapfraction = ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.canopygapfraction";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.1,
-            type = Float,
-        )
-    end
-    return cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction, sl, swood, kext
-end
-
-function initialize_sbm(nc, config, riverfrac, inds)
 
-    dt = Second(config.timestepsecs)
-    config_thicknesslayers = get(config.model, "thicknesslayers", Float[])
-    ksat_profile = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
-    if length(config_thicknesslayers) > 0
-        thicknesslayers = SVector(Tuple(push!(Float.(config_thicknesslayers), mv)))
-        sumlayers = pushfirst(cumsum(thicknesslayers), 0.0)
-        maxlayers = length(thicknesslayers) # max number of soil layers
+    atmospheric_forcing = AtmosphericForcing(n)
+    vegetation_parameter_set = VegetationParameters(nc, config, inds)
+    if dt >= Hour(23)
+        interception_model =
+            GashInterceptionModel(nc, config, inds, vegetation_parameter_set)
     else
-        maxlayers = 1
+        interception_model = RutterInterceptionModel(vegetation_parameter_set, n)
     end
 
-    n = length(inds)
-
-    cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.75653,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    tt = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tt"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.0, type = Float)
-    tti = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.tti"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    ttm = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.ttm"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.0, type = Float)
-    whc = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.whc"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.1, type = Float)
-    w_soil =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.w_soil";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.1125,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    cf_soil =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cf_soil"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.038, type = Float)
-    # glacier parameters
-    g_tt = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.g_tt";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    g_cfmax =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_cfmax";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 3.0,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    g_sifrac =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.g_sifrac";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.001,
-            type = Float,
-            fill = 0.0,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    glacierfrac = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierfrac";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 0.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    glacierstore = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.glacierstore";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 5500.0,
-        type = Float,
-        fill = 0.0,
-    )
-    # soil parameters
-    theta_s =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.theta_s"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.6, type = Float)
-    theta_r =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.theta_r"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.01, type = Float)
-    kv_0 =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.kv_0"; sel = inds, defaults = 3000.0, type = Float) .*
-        (dt / basetimestep)
-    f = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.f"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.001, type = Float)
-    hb = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.hb"; sel = inds, defaults = -10.0, type = Float)
-    h1 = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.h1"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.0, type = Float)
-    h2 = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.h2"; sel = inds, defaults = -100.0, type = Float)
-    h3_high =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.h3_high"; sel = inds, defaults = -400.0, type = Float)
-    h3_low =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.h3_low"; sel = inds, defaults = -1000.0, type = Float)
-    h4 = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.h4"; sel = inds, defaults = -15849.0, type = Float)
-    alpha_h1 =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.alpha_h1"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
-    soilthickness = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.soilthickness";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 2000.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    infiltcappath =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.infiltcappath";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 10.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    infiltcapsoil =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.infiltcapsoil";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 100.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    maxleakage =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.maxleakage";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    c = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.c";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 10.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :layer,
-    )
-    if size(c, 1) != maxlayers
-        parname = param(config.input.vertical, "c")
-        size1 = size(c, 1)
-        error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
-    end
-    kvfrac = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.kvfrac";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-        dimname = :layer,
-    )
-    if size(kvfrac, 1) != maxlayers
-        parname = param(config.input, "vertical.kvfrac")
-        size1 = size(kvfrac, 1)
-        error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
+    modelsnow = get(config.model, "snow", false)::Bool
+    if modelsnow
+        snow_model = SnowHbvModel(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    else
+        snow_model = NoSnowModel{Float}()
     end
-
-    # fraction open water and compacted area (land cover)
-    waterfrac =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.waterfrac"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.0, type = Float)
-    pathfrac =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.pathfrac"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.01, type = Float)
-
-    # vegetation parameters
-    rootingdepth = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.rootingdepth";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 750.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    # correct rooting depth for soilthickness
-    rootingdepth = @. min(0.99 * soilthickness, rootingdepth)
-    rootdistpar = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.rootdistpar";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = -500.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    cap_hmax =
-        ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cap_hmax"; sel = inds, defaults = 2000.0, type = Float)
-    cap_n = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cap_n"; sel = inds, defaults = 2.0, type = Float)
-    kc = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.kc";
-        alias = "vertical.et_reftopot",
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    if haskey(config.input.vertical, "et_reftopot")
+    modelglacier = get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
+    if modelsnow && modelglacier
+        glacier_bc = SnowStateBC{Float}(; snow_storage = snow_model.variables.snow_storage)
+        glacier_model = GlacierHbvModel(nc, config, inds, dt, glacier_bc)
+    elseif modelsnow == false && modelglacier == true
         @warn string(
-            "The `et_reftopot` key in `[input.vertical]` is now called ",
-            "`kc`. Please update your TOML file.",
+            "Glacier processes can be modelled when snow modelling is enabled. To include ",
+            "glacier modelling, set `snow` to `true` in the Model section of the TOML file.",
         )
-    end
-
-    cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction, sl, swood, kext = initialize_canopy(nc, config, inds)
-
-    theta_e = theta_s .- theta_r
-    soilwatercapacity = soilthickness .* theta_e
-    satwaterdepth = 0.85 .* soilwatercapacity # cold state value for satwaterdepth
-    zi = max.(0.0, soilthickness .- satwaterdepth ./ theta_e) # cold state value for zi
-
-    # these are filled in the loop below
-    # TODO see if we can replace this approach
-    nlayers = zeros(Int, n)
-    n_unsatlayers = zeros(Int, n)
-    act_thickl = zeros(Float, maxlayers, n)
-    s_layers = zeros(Float, maxlayers + 1, n)
-
-    for i = 1:n
-        if length(config_thicknesslayers) > 0
-            act_thickl_, nlayers_ =
-                set_layerthickness(soilthickness[i], sumlayers, thicknesslayers)
-            s_layers_ = pushfirst(cumsum(act_thickl_), 0.0)
-
-            nlayers[i] = nlayers_
-            act_thickl[:, i] = act_thickl_
-            s_layers[:, i] = s_layers_
-            _, n_unsatlayers[i] = set_layerthickness(zi[i], sumlayers, thicknesslayers)
-        else
-            nlayers[i] = 1
-            act_thickl[:, i] = SVector(soilthickness[i])
-            s_layers[:, i] = pushfirst(cumsum(SVector(soilthickness[i])), 0.0)
-        end
-    end
-
-    if length(config_thicknesslayers) > 0
-        # root fraction read from nc file, in case of multiple soil layers and TOML file
-        # includes "vertical.rootfraction"
-        if haskey(config.input.vertical, "rootfraction")
-            rootfraction = ncread(
-                nc,
-                config,
-                "vertical.rootfraction";
-                sel = inds,
-                optional = false,
-                type = Float,
-                dimname = :layer,
-            )
-        else
-            # default root fraction in case of multiple soil layers
-            rootfraction = zeros(Float, maxlayers, n)
-            for i = 1:n
-                if rootingdepth[i] > 0.0
-                    for k = 1:maxlayers
-                        if (rootingdepth[i] - s_layers[k, i]) >= act_thickl[k, i]
-                            rootfraction[k, i] = act_thickl[k, i] / rootingdepth[i]
-                        else
-                            rootfraction[k, i] =
-                                max(rootingdepth[i] - s_layers[k, i], 0.0) / rootingdepth[i]
-                        end
-                    end
-                end
-            end
-        end
+        glacier_model = NoGlacierModel{Float}()
     else
-        # for the case of 1 soil layer
-        rootfraction = ones(Float, maxlayers, n)
+        glacier_model = NoGlacierModel{Float}()
     end
+    runoff_model = OpenWaterRunoff(nc, config, inds, riverfrac)
 
-    # needed for derived parameters below
-    act_thickl = svectorscopy(act_thickl, Val{maxlayers}())
-
-    # copied to array of sarray below
-    vwc = fill(mv, maxlayers, n)
-    vwc_perc = fill(mv, maxlayers, n)
-    sumlayers = svectorscopy(s_layers, Val{maxlayers + 1}())
-
-    # ksat profiles
-    if ksat_profile == "exponential"
-        z_exp = soilthickness
-        z_layered = fill(mv, n)
-        kv = fill(mv, (maxlayers, n))
-        nlayers_kv = fill(0, n)
-    elseif ksat_profile == "exponential_constant"
-        z_exp =
-            ncread(nc, config, "vertical.z_exp"; optional = false, sel = inds, type = Float)
-        z_layered = fill(mv, n)
-        kv = fill(mv, (maxlayers, n))
-        nlayers_kv = fill(0, n)
-    elseif ksat_profile == "layered" || ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-        z_exp = fill(mv, n)
-        kv =
-            ncread(
-                nc,
-                config,
-                "vertical.kv";
-                sel = inds,
-                defaults = 1000.0,
-                type = Float,
-                dimname = :layer,
-            ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-        if size(kv, 1) != maxlayers
-            parname = param(config.input.vertical, "kv")
-            size1 = size(kv, 1)
-            error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
-        end
-        if ksat_profile == "layered"
-            z_layered = soilthickness
-            nlayers_kv = nlayers
-        else
-            z_layered = ncread(
-                nc,
-                config,
-                "vertical.z_layered";
-                optional = false,
-                sel = inds,
-                type = Float,
-            )
-            nlayers_kv = fill(0, n)
-            for i in eachindex(nlayers_kv)
-                layers = @view sumlayers[i][2:nlayers[i]]
-                _, k = findmin(abs.(z_layered[i] .- layers))
-                nlayers_kv[i] = k
-                z_layered[i] = layers[k]
-            end
-        end
-    else
-        error("""An unknown "ksat_profile" is specified in the TOML file ($ksat_profile).
-              This should be "exponential", "exponential_constant", "layered" or
-              "layered_exponential".
-              """)
-    end
+    soil_model = SbmSoilModel(nc, config, vegetation_parameter_set, inds, dt)
+    @. vegetation_parameter_set.rootingdepth = min(
+        soil_model.parameters.soilthickness * 0.99,
+        vegetation_parameter_set.rootingdepth,
+    )
 
-    # water demand and irrigation options
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
-    domestic = do_water_demand ? get(config.model.water_demand, "domestic", false) : false
-    industry = do_water_demand ? get(config.model.water_demand, "industry", false) : false
-    livestock = do_water_demand ? get(config.model.water_demand, "livestock", false) : false
-    paddy = do_water_demand ? get(config.model.water_demand, "paddy", false) : false
-    nonpaddy = do_water_demand ? get(config.model.water_demand, "nonpaddy", false) : false
-
-    sbm = SBM(
+    allocation =
+        do_water_demand ? AllocationLand(nc, config, inds) : NoAllocationLand{Float}()
+    demand = do_water_demand ? Demand(nc, config, inds, dt) : NoDemand{Float}()
+
+    args = (demand, allocation)
+    land_hydrology_model = LandHydrologySBM{Float, typeof.(args)...}(;
+        atmospheric_forcing = atmospheric_forcing,
+        vegetation_parameter_set = vegetation_parameter_set,
+        interception = interception_model,
+        snow = snow_model,
+        glacier = glacier_model,
+        runoff = runoff_model,
+        soil = soil_model,
+        demand = demand,
+        allocation = allocation,
         dt = tosecond(dt),
-        maxlayers = maxlayers,
-        n = n,
-        nlayers = nlayers,
-        n_unsatlayers = n_unsatlayers,
-        nlayers_kv = nlayers_kv,
-        riverfrac = riverfrac,
-        theta_s = theta_s,
-        theta_r = theta_r,
-        kv_0 = kv_0,
-        kv = svectorscopy(kv, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        kvfrac = svectorscopy(kvfrac, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        hb = hb,
-        h1 = h1,
-        h2 = h2,
-        h3_high = h3_high,
-        h3_low = h3_low,
-        h4 = h4,
-        h3 = fill(mv, n),
-        alpha_h1 = alpha_h1,
-        soilthickness = soilthickness,
-        act_thickl = act_thickl,
-        sumlayers = sumlayers,
-        infiltcappath = infiltcappath,
-        infiltcapsoil = infiltcapsoil,
-        soilinfredu = fill(Float(1), n),
-        maxleakage = maxleakage,
-        waterfrac = max.(waterfrac .- riverfrac, Float(0.0)),
-        pathfrac = pathfrac,
-        rootingdepth = rootingdepth,
-        rootfraction = svectorscopy(rootfraction, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        rootdistpar = rootdistpar,
-        cap_hmax = cap_hmax,
-        cap_n = cap_n,
-        kc = kc,
-        c = svectorscopy(c, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        stemflow = fill(mv, n),
-        throughfall = fill(mv, n),
-        f = f,
-        z_exp = z_exp,
-        z_layered = z_layered,
-        ustorelayerdepth = zero(act_thickl),
-        satwaterdepth = satwaterdepth,
-        zi = zi,
-        soilwatercapacity = soilwatercapacity,
-        canopystorage = zeros(Float, n),
-        cmax = cmax,
-        canopygapfraction = canopygapfraction,
-        e_r = e_r,
-        precipitation = fill(mv, n),
-        temperature = fill(mv, n),
-        potential_evaporation = fill(mv, n),
-        pottrans = fill(mv, n),
-        transpiration = fill(mv, n),
-        ae_ustore = fill(mv, n),
-        interception = fill(mv, n),
-        soilevap = fill(mv, n),
-        soilevapsat = fill(mv, n),
-        actcapflux = fill(mv, n),
-        actevapsat = fill(mv, n),
-        actevap = fill(mv, n),
-        runoff_river = fill(mv, n),
-        runoff_land = fill(mv, n),
-        ae_openw_l = fill(mv, n),
-        ae_openw_r = fill(mv, n),
-        avail_forinfilt = fill(mv, n),
-        actinfilt = fill(mv, n),
-        actinfiltsoil = fill(mv, n),
-        actinfiltpath = fill(mv, n),
-        infiltsoilpath = fill(mv, n),
-        infiltexcess = fill(mv, n),
-        excesswater = fill(mv, n),
-        exfiltsatwater = fill(mv, n),
-        exfiltustore = fill(mv, n),
-        excesswatersoil = fill(mv, n),
-        excesswaterpath = fill(mv, n),
-        runoff = fill(mv, n),
-        net_runoff = fill(mv, n),
-        net_runoff_river = fill(mv, n),
-        vwc = svectorscopy(vwc, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        vwc_perc = svectorscopy(vwc_perc, Val{maxlayers}()),
-        rootstore = fill(mv, n),
-        vwc_root = fill(mv, n),
-        vwc_percroot = fill(mv, n),
-        ustoredepth = fill(mv, n),
-        transfer = fill(mv, n),
-        recharge = fill(mv, n),
-        actleakage = fill(mv, n),
-        # snow parameters
-        cfmax = cfmax,
-        tt = tt,
-        tti = tti,
-        ttm = ttm,
-        whc = whc,
-        w_soil = w_soil,
-        cf_soil = cf_soil,
-        snow = zeros(Float, n),
-        snowwater = zeros(Float, n),
-        rainfallplusmelt = fill(mv, n),
-        tsoil = fill(Float(10.0), n),
-        # glacier parameters
-        g_tt = g_tt,
-        g_sifrac = g_sifrac,
-        g_cfmax = g_cfmax,
-        glacierstore = glacierstore,
-        glacierfrac = glacierfrac,
-        # Interception related to climatology (leaf_area_index)
-        sl = sl,
-        swood = swood,
-        kext = kext,
-        leaf_area_index = fill(mv, n),
-        # water level land and river domain
-        waterlevel_land = fill(mv, n),
-        waterlevel_river = zeros(Float, n), #set to zero to account for cells outside river domain
-        total_storage = zeros(Float, n), # Set the total water storage from initialized values
-        # water demand
-        paddy = paddy ? initialize_paddy(nc, config, inds, dt) : nothing,
-        nonpaddy = nonpaddy ? initialize_nonpaddy(nc, config, inds, dt) : nothing,
-        domestic = domestic ? initialize_domestic_demand(nc, config, inds, dt) : nothing,
-        industry = industry ? initialize_industry_demand(nc, config, inds, dt) : nothing,
-        livestock = livestock ? initialize_livestock_demand(nc, config, inds, dt) : nothing,
-        allocation = do_water_demand ? initialize_allocation_land(nc, config, inds) :
-                     nothing,
     )
-
-    return sbm
-
-end
-
-
-function update_until_snow(sbm::SBM, config)
-
-    do_lai = haskey(config.input.vertical, "leaf_area_index")
-    modelglacier = get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
-    modelsnow = get(config.model, "snow", false)::Bool
-
-    threaded_foreach(1:sbm.n, basesize = 1000) do i
-        if do_lai
-            cmax = sbm.sl[i] * sbm.leaf_area_index[i] + sbm.swood[i]
-            canopygapfraction = exp(-sbm.kext[i] * sbm.leaf_area_index[i])
-            canopyfraction = 1.0 - canopygapfraction
-            ewet = canopyfraction * sbm.potential_evaporation[i] * sbm.kc[i]
-            e_r =
-                sbm.precipitation[i] > 0.0 ?
-                min(0.25, ewet / max(0.0001, canopyfraction * sbm.precipitation[i])) : 0.0
-        else
-            cmax = sbm.cmax[i]
-            canopygapfraction = sbm.canopygapfraction[i]
-            e_r = sbm.e_r[i]
-        end
-
-        canopy_potevap =
-            sbm.kc[i] * sbm.potential_evaporation[i] * (1.0 - canopygapfraction)
-        if Second(sbm.dt) >= Hour(23)
-            throughfall, interception, stemflow, canopystorage = rainfall_interception_gash(
-                cmax,
-                e_r,
-                canopygapfraction,
-                sbm.precipitation[i],
-                sbm.canopystorage[i],
-                canopy_potevap,
-            )
-            pottrans = max(0.0, canopy_potevap - interception) # now in mm
-        else
-            netinterception, throughfall, stemflow, leftover, interception, canopystorage =
-                rainfall_interception_modrut(
-                    sbm.precipitation[i],
-                    canopy_potevap,
-                    sbm.canopystorage[i],
-                    canopygapfraction,
-                    cmax,
-                )
-            pottrans = max(0.0, leftover)  # now in mm
-        end
-
-        if modelsnow
-            tsoil = sbm.tsoil[i] + sbm.w_soil[i] * (sbm.temperature[i] - sbm.tsoil[i])
-            snow, snowwater, snowmelt, rainfallplusmelt, snowfall = snowpack_hbv(
-                sbm.snow[i],
-                sbm.snowwater[i],
-                throughfall + stemflow,
-                sbm.temperature[i],
-                sbm.tti[i],
-                sbm.tt[i],
-                sbm.ttm[i],
-                sbm.cfmax[i],
-                sbm.whc[i],
-            )
-        end
-
-        h3 = feddes_h3(sbm.h3_high[i], sbm.h3_low[i], pottrans, Second(sbm.dt))
-
-        # update the outputs and states
-        sbm.e_r[i] = e_r
-        sbm.cmax[i] = cmax
-        sbm.canopygapfraction[i] = canopygapfraction
-        sbm.canopystorage[i] = canopystorage
-        sbm.interception[i] = interception
-        sbm.stemflow[i] = stemflow
-        sbm.throughfall[i] = throughfall
-        sbm.pottrans[i] = pottrans
-        sbm.h3[i] = h3
-        if modelsnow
-            sbm.snow[i] = snow
-            sbm.snowwater[i] = snowwater
-            sbm.tsoil[i] = tsoil
-            sbm.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        end
-    end
+    return land_hydrology_model
 end
 
-function update_until_recharge(sbm::SBM, config)
-
-    # start dummy variables (should be generated from model reader and from Config.jl TOML)
-    soilinfreduction = get(config.model, "soilinfreduction", false)::Bool
-    modelglacier = get(config.model, "glacier", false)::Bool
-    modelsnow = get(config.model, "snow", false)::Bool
-    transfermethod = get(config.model, "transfermethod", false)::Bool
-    ust = get(config.model, "whole_ust_available", false)::Bool # should be removed from optional setting and code?
-    ksat_profile = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
-
-    threaded_foreach(1:sbm.n, basesize = 250) do i
-        if modelsnow
-            rainfallplusmelt = sbm.rainfallplusmelt[i]
-            if modelglacier
-                # Run Glacier module and add the snowpack on-top of it.
-                # Estimate the fraction of snow turned into ice (HBV-light).
-                # Estimate glacier melt.
-
-                snow, _, glacierstore, glaciermelt = glacier_hbv(
-                    sbm.glacierfrac[i],
-                    sbm.glacierstore[i],
-                    sbm.snow[i],
-                    sbm.temperature[i],
-                    sbm.g_tt[i],
-                    sbm.g_cfmax[i],
-                    sbm.g_sifrac[i],
-                    Second(sbm.dt),
-                )
-                # Convert to mm per grid cell and add to snowmelt
-                glaciermelt = glaciermelt * sbm.glacierfrac[i]
-                rainfallplusmelt = rainfallplusmelt + glaciermelt
-
-            end
-        else
-            rainfallplusmelt = sbm.stemflow[i] + sbm.throughfall[i]
-        end
-
-        avail_forinfilt = rainfallplusmelt
-        ustoredepth = sum(@view sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i][1:sbm.nlayers[i]])
-
-        runoff_river = min(1.0, sbm.riverfrac[i]) * avail_forinfilt
-        runoff_land = min(1.0, sbm.waterfrac[i]) * avail_forinfilt
-        if !isnothing(sbm.paddy) || !isnothing(sbm.nonpaddy)
-            avail_forinfilt = avail_forinfilt + sbm.allocation.irri_alloc[i]
-        end
-        avail_forinfilt = max(avail_forinfilt - runoff_river - runoff_land, 0.0)
-
-        ae_openw_r = min(
-            sbm.waterlevel_river[i] * sbm.riverfrac[i],
-            sbm.riverfrac[i] * sbm.potential_evaporation[i],
-        )
-        ae_openw_l = min(
-            sbm.waterlevel_land[i] * sbm.waterfrac[i],
-            sbm.waterfrac[i] * sbm.potential_evaporation[i],
-        )
-
-        # evap available for soil evaporation
-        soilevap_fraction = max(
-            sbm.canopygapfraction[i] - sbm.riverfrac[i] - sbm.waterfrac[i] -
-            sbm.glacierfrac[i],
-            0.0,
-        )
-        potsoilevap = soilevap_fraction * sbm.potential_evaporation[i]
-
-        if !isnothing(sbm.paddy) && sbm.paddy.irrigation_areas[i]
-            evap_paddy_water = min(sbm.paddy.h[i], potsoilevap)
-            sbm.paddy.h[i] -= evap_paddy_water
-            potsoilevap -= evap_paddy_water
-            avail_forinfilt += sbm.paddy.h[i] # allow infiltration of paddy water
-        else
-            evap_paddy_water = 0.0
-        end
-
-        # Calculate the initial capacity of the unsaturated store
-        ustorecapacity = sbm.soilwatercapacity[i] - sbm.satwaterdepth[i] - ustoredepth
-
-        # Calculate the infiltration flux into the soil column
-        infiltsoilpath,
-        infiltsoil,
-        infiltpath,
-        soilinf,
-        pathinf,
-        infiltexcess,
-        soilinfredu = infiltration(
-            avail_forinfilt,
-            sbm.pathfrac[i],
-            sbm.cf_soil[i],
-            sbm.tsoil[i],
-            sbm.infiltcapsoil[i],
-            sbm.infiltcappath[i],
-            ustorecapacity,
-            modelsnow,
-            soilinfreduction,
+"Update land hydrology model with SBM soil model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::LandHydrologySBM, lateral, network, config)
+    do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")::Bool
+    (;
+        glacier,
+        snow,
+        interception,
+        runoff,
+        soil,
+        demand,
+        allocation,
+        atmospheric_forcing,
+        dt,
+    ) = model
+
+    update!(interception, atmospheric_forcing)
+
+    update_boundary_conditions!(snow, (; interception))
+    update!(snow, atmospheric_forcing)
+
+    # lateral snow transport
+    if get(config.model, "masswasting", false)::Bool
+        lateral_snow_transport!(
+            snow.variables.snow_storage,
+            snow.variables.snow_water,
+            network.land.slope,
+            network.land,
         )
-
-
-        usl, n_usl = set_layerthickness(sbm.zi[i], sbm.sumlayers[i], sbm.act_thickl[i])
-        z = cumsum(usl)
-        usld = sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i]
-
-        ast = 0.0
-        soilevapunsat = 0.0
-        if n_usl > 0
-            # Using the surface infiltration rate, calculate the flow rate between the
-            # different soil layers that contain unsaturated storage assuming gravity
-            # based flow only, estimate the gravity based flux rate to the saturated zone
-            # (ast) and the updated unsaturated storage for each soil layer.
-            if transfermethod && sbm.maxlayers == 1
-                ustorelayerdepth = sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i][1] + infiltsoilpath
-                kv_z = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(sbm, sbm.zi[i], i, 1, ksat_profile)
-                ustorelayerdepth, ast = unsatzone_flow_sbm(
-                    ustorelayerdepth,
-                    sbm.soilwatercapacity[i],
-                    sbm.satwaterdepth[i],
-                    kv_z,
-                    usl[1],
-                    sbm.theta_s[i],
-                    sbm.theta_r[i],
-                )
-                usld = setindex(usld, ustorelayerdepth, 1)
-            else
-                for m = 1:n_usl
-                    l_sat = usl[m] * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i])
-                    kv_z = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(sbm, z[m], i, m, ksat_profile)
-                    ustorelayerdepth =
-                        m == 1 ? sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i][m] + infiltsoilpath :
-                        sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i][m] + ast
-                    ustorelayerdepth, ast =
-                        unsatzone_flow_layer(ustorelayerdepth, kv_z, l_sat, sbm.c[i][m])
-                    usld = setindex(usld, ustorelayerdepth, m)
-                end
-            end
-
-            # then evapotranspiration from layers
-            # Calculate saturation deficit
-            saturationdeficit = sbm.soilwatercapacity[i] - sbm.satwaterdepth[i]
-
-            # First calculate the evaporation of unsaturated storage into the
-            # atmosphere from the upper layer.
-            if sbm.maxlayers == 1
-                soilevapunsat =
-                    potsoilevap * min(1.0, saturationdeficit / sbm.soilwatercapacity[i])
-            else
-                # In case only the most upper soil layer contains unsaturated storage
-                if n_usl == 1
-                    # Check if groundwater level lies below the surface
-                    soilevapunsat =
-                        potsoilevap *
-                        min(1.0, usld[1] / (sbm.zi[i] * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i])))
-                else
-                    # In case first layer contains no saturated storage
-                    soilevapunsat =
-                        potsoilevap *
-                        min(1.0, usld[1] / (usl[1] * ((sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i]))))
-                end
-            end
-            # Ensure that the unsaturated evaporation rate does not exceed the
-            # available unsaturated moisture
-            soilevapunsat = min(soilevapunsat, usld[1])
-            # Update the additional atmospheric demand
-            potsoilevap = potsoilevap - soilevapunsat
-            usld = setindex(usld, usld[1] - soilevapunsat, 1)
-        end
-        transfer = ast
-
-        if sbm.maxlayers == 1
-            soilevapsat = 0.0
-        else
-            if n_usl == 0 || n_usl == 1
-                soilevapsat =
-                    potsoilevap *
-                    min(1.0, (sbm.act_thickl[i][1] - sbm.zi[i]) / sbm.act_thickl[i][1])
-                soilevapsat = min(
-                    soilevapsat,
-                    (sbm.act_thickl[i][1] - sbm.zi[i]) * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i]),
-                )
-            else
-                soilevapsat = 0.0
-            end
-        end
-        soilevap = soilevapunsat + soilevapsat
-        satwaterdepth = sbm.satwaterdepth[i] - soilevapsat
-
-        # actual transpiration, first from ustore, potential transpiration is partitioned over
-        # depth based on the rootfraction
-        actevapustore = 0.0
-        rootfraction_unsat = 0.0
-        for k = 1:n_usl
-            vwc = max(usld[k] / usl[k], Float(0.0000001))
-            head = head_brooks_corey(
-                vwc,
-                sbm.theta_s[i],
-                sbm.theta_r[i],
-                sbm.c[i][k],
-                sbm.hb[i],
-            )
-            alpha = rwu_reduction_feddes(
-                head,
-                sbm.h1[i],
-                sbm.h2[i],
-                sbm.h3[i],
-                sbm.h4[i],
-                sbm.alpha_h1[i],
-            )
-            # availcap is fraction of soil layer containing roots
-            # if `ust` is `true`, the whole unsaturated store is available for transpiration
-            if ust
-                availcap = usld[k] * 0.99
-            else
-                availcap =
-                    min(1.0, max(0.0, (sbm.rootingdepth[i] - sbm.sumlayers[i][k]) / usl[k]))
-            end
-            maxextr = usld[k] * availcap
-            # the rootfraction is valid for the root length in a soil layer, if zi decreases the root length
-            # the rootfraction needs to be adapted
-            if k == n_usl && sbm.zi[i] < sbm.rootingdepth[i]
-                rootlength =
-                    min(sbm.act_thickl[i][k], sbm.rootingdepth[i] - sbm.sumlayers[i][k])
-                rootfraction_act = sbm.rootfraction[i][k] * (usl[k] / rootlength)
-            else
-                rootfraction_act = sbm.rootfraction[i][k]
-            end
-            actevapustore_layer = min(alpha * rootfraction_act * sbm.pottrans[i], maxextr)
-            rootfraction_unsat = rootfraction_unsat + rootfraction_act
-            ustorelayerdepth = usld[k] - actevapustore_layer
-            actevapustore = actevapustore + actevapustore_layer
-            usld = setindex(usld, ustorelayerdepth, k)
-        end
-
-        # transpiration from saturated store
-        wetroots = scurve(sbm.zi[i], sbm.rootingdepth[i], Float(1.0), sbm.rootdistpar[i])
-        alpha = rwu_reduction_feddes(
-            Float(0.0),
-            sbm.h1[i],
-            sbm.h2[i],
-            sbm.h3[i],
-            sbm.h4[i],
-            sbm.alpha_h1[i],
-        )
-        # include remaining root fraction if rooting depth is below water table zi
-        if sbm.zi[i] >= sbm.rootingdepth[i]
-            f_roots = wetroots
-            restevap = sbm.pottrans[i] - actevapustore
-        else
-            f_roots = wetroots * (1.0 - rootfraction_unsat)
-            restevap = sbm.pottrans[i]
-        end
-        actevapsat = min(restevap * f_roots * alpha, satwaterdepth)
-        satwaterdepth = satwaterdepth - actevapsat
-
-        # check soil moisture balance per layer
-        du = 0.0
-        for k = n_usl:-1:1
-            du = max(0.0, usld[k] - usl[k] * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i]))
-            usld = setindex(usld, usld[k] - du, k)
-            if k > 1
-                usld = setindex(usld, usld[k-1] + du, k - 1)
-            end
-        end
-
-        actinfilt = infiltsoilpath - du
-        excesswater = avail_forinfilt - infiltsoilpath - infiltexcess + du
-
-        # Separation between compacted and non compacted areas (correction with the satflow du)
-        # This is required for D-Emission/Delwaq
-        if infiltsoil + infiltpath > 0.0
-            actinfiltsoil = infiltsoil - du * infiltsoil / (infiltpath + infiltsoil)
-            actinfiltpath = infiltpath - du * infiltpath / (infiltpath + infiltsoil)
-        else
-            actinfiltsoil = 0.0
-            actinfiltpath = 0.0
-        end
-        excesswatersoil = max(soilinf - actinfiltsoil, 0.0)
-        excesswaterpath = max(pathinf - actinfiltpath, 0.0)
-
-        actcapflux = 0.0
-        if n_usl > 0
-            ksat = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(sbm, sbm.zi[i], i, n_usl, ksat_profile)
-            ustorecapacity =
-                sbm.soilwatercapacity[i] - satwaterdepth - sum(@view usld[1:sbm.nlayers[i]])
-            maxcapflux = max(0.0, min(ksat, actevapustore, ustorecapacity, satwaterdepth))
-
-            if sbm.zi[i] > sbm.rootingdepth[i]
-                capflux =
-                    maxcapflux * pow(
-                        1.0 - min(sbm.zi[i], sbm.cap_hmax[i]) / (sbm.cap_hmax[i]),
-                        sbm.cap_n[i],
-                    )
-            else
-                capflux = 0.0
-            end
-
-            netcapflux = capflux
-            for k = n_usl:-1:1
-                toadd = min(
-                    netcapflux,
-                    max(usl[k] * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i]) - usld[k], 0.0),
-                )
-                usld = setindex(usld, usld[k] + toadd, k)
-                netcapflux = netcapflux - toadd
-                actcapflux = actcapflux + toadd
-            end
-        end
-        deepksat = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
-            sbm,
-            sbm.soilthickness[i],
-            i,
-            sbm.nlayers[i],
-            ksat_profile,
-        )
-        deeptransfer = min(satwaterdepth, deepksat)
-        actleakage = max(0.0, min(sbm.maxleakage[i], deeptransfer))
-
-        # recharge (mm) for saturated zone
-        recharge = (transfer - actcapflux - actleakage - actevapsat - soilevapsat)
-        transpiration = actevapsat + actevapustore
-        actevap =
-            soilevap +
-            transpiration +
-            ae_openw_r +
-            ae_openw_l +
-            sbm.interception[i] +
-            evap_paddy_water
-
-        # update the outputs and states
-        sbm.n_unsatlayers[i] = n_usl
-        sbm.net_runoff_river[i] = runoff_river - ae_openw_r
-        sbm.avail_forinfilt[i] = avail_forinfilt
-        sbm.actinfilt[i] = actinfilt
-        sbm.infiltexcess[i] = infiltexcess
-        sbm.recharge[i] = recharge
-        sbm.transpiration[i] = transpiration
-        sbm.soilevap[i] = soilevap
-        sbm.soilevapsat[i] = soilevapsat
-        sbm.ae_openw_r[i] = ae_openw_r
-        sbm.ae_openw_l[i] = ae_openw_l
-        sbm.runoff_land[i] = runoff_land
-        sbm.runoff_river[i] = runoff_river
-        sbm.actevapsat[i] = actevapsat
-        sbm.actevap[i] = actevap
-        sbm.ae_ustore[i] = actevapustore
-        sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i] = usld
-        sbm.transfer[i] = transfer
-        sbm.actcapflux[i] = actcapflux
-        sbm.actleakage[i] = actleakage
-        sbm.actinfiltsoil[i] = actinfiltsoil
-        sbm.actinfiltpath[i] = actinfiltpath
-        sbm.excesswater[i] = excesswater
-        sbm.excesswatersoil[i] = excesswatersoil
-        sbm.excesswaterpath[i] = excesswaterpath
-        sbm.rainfallplusmelt[i] = rainfallplusmelt
-        sbm.infiltsoilpath[i] = infiltsoilpath
-        sbm.satwaterdepth[i] = satwaterdepth
-        sbm.soilinfredu[i] = soilinfredu
-        if modelsnow
-            if modelglacier
-                sbm.snow[i] = snow
-                sbm.glacierstore[i] = glacierstore
-            end
-        end
     end
-end
-
-function update_after_subsurfaceflow(sbm::SBM, zi, exfiltsatwater)
-
-    threaded_foreach(1:sbm.n, basesize = 1000) do i
-        usl, n_usl = set_layerthickness(zi[i], sbm.sumlayers[i], sbm.act_thickl[i])
-        # exfiltration from ustore
-        usld = sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i]
-        exfiltustore = 0.0
-        for k = sbm.n_unsatlayers[i]:-1:1
-            if k <= n_usl
-                exfiltustore = max(0, usld[k] - usl[k] * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i]))
-            else
-                exfiltustore = usld[k]
-            end
-            usld = setindex(usld, usld[k] - exfiltustore, k)
-            if k > 1
-                usld = setindex(usld, usld[k-1] + exfiltustore, k - 1)
-            end
-        end
-
-        ustoredepth = sum(@view usld[1:n_usl])
 
-        if !isnothing(sbm.paddy) && sbm.paddy.irrigation_areas[i]
-            paddy_h_add =
-                exfiltustore +
-                exfiltsatwater[i] +
-                sbm.excesswater[i] +
-                sbm.runoff_land[i] +
-                sbm.infiltexcess[i]
-            runoff = max(paddy_h_add - sbm.paddy.h_max[i], 0.0)
-            sbm.paddy.h[i] = paddy_h_add - runoff
-        else
-            runoff =
-                exfiltustore +
-                exfiltsatwater[i] +
-                sbm.excesswater[i] +
-                sbm.runoff_land[i] +
-                sbm.infiltexcess[i]
-        end
+    update!(glacier, atmospheric_forcing)
 
-        # volumetric water content per soil layer and root zone
-        vwc = sbm.vwc[i]
-        vwc_perc = sbm.vwc_perc[i]
-        for k = 1:sbm.nlayers[i]
-            if k <= n_usl
-                vwc = setindex(
-                    vwc,
-                    (
-                        usld[k] +
-                        (sbm.act_thickl[i][k] - usl[k]) * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i])
-                    ) / sbm.act_thickl[i][k] + sbm.theta_r[i],
-                    k,
-                )
-            else
-                vwc = setindex(vwc, sbm.theta_s[i], k)
-            end
-            vwc_perc = setindex(vwc_perc, (vwc[k] / sbm.theta_s[i]) * 100.0, k)
-        end
+    update_boundary_conditions!(runoff, (; glacier, snow, interception), lateral, network)
+    update!(runoff, atmospheric_forcing)
 
-        rootstore_unsat = 0
-        for k = 1:n_usl
-            rootstore_unsat =
-                rootstore_unsat +
-                min(1.0, (max(0.0, sbm.rootingdepth[i] - sbm.sumlayers[i][k]) / usl[k])) *
-                usld[k]
-        end
-
-        rootstore_sat =
-            max(0.0, sbm.rootingdepth[i] - zi[i]) * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i])
-        rootstore = rootstore_sat + rootstore_unsat
-        vwc_root = rootstore / sbm.rootingdepth[i] + sbm.theta_r[i]
-        vwc_percroot = (vwc_root / sbm.theta_s[i]) * 100.0
-
-        satwaterdepth = (sbm.soilthickness[i] - zi[i]) * (sbm.theta_s[i] - sbm.theta_r[i])
-
-        # update the outputs and states
-        sbm.n_unsatlayers[i] = n_usl
-        sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i] = usld
-        sbm.ustoredepth[i] = ustoredepth
-        sbm.satwaterdepth[i] = satwaterdepth
-        sbm.exfiltsatwater[i] = exfiltsatwater[i]
-        sbm.exfiltustore[i] = exfiltustore
-        sbm.runoff[i] = runoff
-        sbm.net_runoff[i] = runoff - sbm.ae_openw_l[i]
-        sbm.vwc[i] = vwc
-        sbm.vwc_perc[i] = vwc_perc
-        sbm.rootstore[i] = rootstore
-        sbm.vwc_root[i] = vwc_root
-        sbm.vwc_percroot[i] = vwc_percroot
-        sbm.zi[i] = zi[i]
+    if do_water_demand
+        (; potential_transpiration) = soil.boundary_conditions
+        (; h3_high, h3_low) = soil.parameters
+        potential_transpiration .= get_potential_transpiration(interception)
+        @. soil.variables.h3 = feddes_h3(h3_high, h3_low, potential_transpiration, dt)
     end
+    update_water_demand!(demand, soil)
+    update_water_allocation!(allocation, demand, lateral, network, dt)
+
+    soil_fraction!(soil, runoff, glacier)
+    update_boundary_conditions!(
+        soil,
+        atmospheric_forcing,
+        (; interception, runoff, demand, allocation),
+    )
+
+    update!(soil, atmospheric_forcing, (; snow, runoff, demand), config, dt)
+    @. soil.variables.actevap += interception.variables.interception_rate
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
 Update the total water storage per cell at the end of a timestep.
 
 Takes the following parameters:
-- sbm:
-    The vertical concept (SBM struct)
+- model:
+    The land hydrology model with the SBM soil model `LandHydrologySBM`
 - river_network:
     The indices of the river cells in relation to the active cells, i.e. model.network.index_river
 - area:
@@ -1330,146 +145,44 @@ Takes the following parameters:
 - land_routing:
     The land routing struct, i.e. model.lateral.land
 """
-function update_total_water_storage(
-    sbm::SBM,
+function update_total_water_storage!(
+    model::LandHydrologySBM,
     river_network,
     area,
     river_routing,
     land_routing,
 )
+    (; interception, snow, glacier, runoff, soil, demand) = model
+    (; total_storage, ustoredepth, satwaterdepth) = soil.variables
+    (; riverfrac) = runoff.parameters
+
     # Set the total storage to zero
-    fill!(sbm.total_storage, 0)
+    fill!(total_storage, 0)
 
     # Burn the river routing values
     for (i, index_river) in enumerate(river_network)
-        sbm.total_storage[index_river] = (
+        total_storage[index_river] = (
             (river_routing.h_av[i] * river_routing.width[i] * river_routing.dl[i]) /
             (area[index_river]) * 1000 # Convert to mm
         )
     end
 
-    # Chunk the data for parallel computing
-    threaded_foreach(1:sbm.n, basesize = 1000) do i
+    # Add storage from interception, snow and glacier models
+    total_storage .+=
+        get_snow_storage(snow) .+ get_snow_water(snow) .+
+        get_glacier_store(glacier) .* get_glacier_fraction(glacier) .+
+        interception.variables.canopy_storage .+ get_water_depth(demand.paddy)
 
-        # Paddy water depth
-        paddy_h = isnothing(sbm.paddy) ? 0.0 : sbm.paddy.h[i]
-
-        # Cumulate per vertical type
-        # Maybe re-categorize in the future
-        surface = (
-            sbm.glacierstore[i] * sbm.glacierfrac[i] +
-            sbm.snow[i] +
-            sbm.snowwater[i] +
-            sbm.canopystorage[i] +
-            paddy_h
-        )
-        sub_surface = sbm.ustoredepth[i] + sbm.satwaterdepth[i]
+    # Chunk the data for parallel computing
+    n = length(ustoredepth)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        sub_surface = ustoredepth[i] + satwaterdepth[i]
         lateral = (
-            land_routing.h_av[i] * (1 - sbm.riverfrac[i]) * 1000 # convert to mm
+            land_routing.h_av[i] * (1 - riverfrac[i]) * 1000 # convert to mm
         )
 
         # Add everything to the total water storage
-        sbm.total_storage[i] += (surface + sub_surface + lateral)
-    end
-end
-
-"""
-    update_water_demand(sbm::SBM)
-
-Update water demand for vertical `SBM` concept for a single timestep. Water demand is
-computed for sectors `industry`, `domestic` and `livestock`, and `paddy` rice fields and
-`nonpaddy` (other crop) fields.
-
-Gross water demand for irrigation `irri_demand_gross` and non-irrigation
-`nonirri_demand_gross`, and total gross water demand `total_gross_demand` are updated as
-part of `SBM` water allocation (`allocation`)
-"""
-function update_water_demand(sbm::SBM)
-    for i = 1:sbm.n
-
-        industry_dem = update_non_irrigation_demand(sbm.industry, i)
-        domestic_dem = update_non_irrigation_demand(sbm.domestic, i)
-        livestock_dem = update_non_irrigation_demand(sbm.livestock, i)
-
-        irri_dem_gross = 0.0
-        if !isnothing(sbm.nonpaddy) && sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_areas[i]
-            if sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger[i]
-                usl, _ = set_layerthickness(sbm.zi[i], sbm.sumlayers[i], sbm.act_thickl[i])
-                for k = 1:sbm.n_unsatlayers[i]
-                    # compute water demand only for root zone through root fraction per layer
-                    rootfrac = min(
-                        1.0,
-                        (max(0.0, sbm.rootingdepth[i] - sbm.sumlayers[i][k]) / usl[k]),
-                    )
-                    # vwc_f and vwc_h3 can be precalculated.
-                    vwc_fc = vwc_brooks_corey(
-                        -100.0,
-                        sbm.hb[i],
-                        sbm.theta_s[i],
-                        sbm.theta_r[i],
-                        sbm.c[i][k],
-                    )
-                    vwc_h3 = vwc_brooks_corey(
-                        sbm.h3[i],
-                        sbm.hb[i],
-                        sbm.theta_s[i],
-                        sbm.theta_r[i],
-                        sbm.c[i][k],
-                    )
-                    depletion =
-                        (vwc_fc * usl[k]) -
-                        (sbm.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] + sbm.theta_r[i] * usl[k])
-                    depletion *= rootfrac
-                    raw = (vwc_fc - vwc_h3) * usl[k] # readily available water
-                    raw *= rootfrac
-
-                    # check if maximum irrigation rate has been applied at the previous time step.
-                    max_irri_rate_applied =
-                        sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[i] ==
-                        sbm.nonpaddy.maximum_irrigation_rate[i]
-                    if depletion >= raw # start irrigation
-                        irri_dem_gross += depletion
-                        # add depletion to irrigation gross demand when the maximum irrigation rate has been 
-                        # applied at the previous time step (to get volumetric water content at field capacity)
-                    elseif depletion > 0.0 && max_irri_rate_applied # continue irrigation
-                        irri_dem_gross += depletion
-                    end
-                end
-                # limit irrigation demand to infiltration capacity    
-                infiltration_capacity =
-                    sbm.soilinfredu[i] * (1.0 - sbm.pathfrac[i]) * sbm.infiltcapsoil[i]
-                irri_dem_gross = min(irri_dem_gross, infiltration_capacity)
-                irri_dem_gross /= sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_efficiency[i]
-                # limit irrigation demand to the maximum irrigation rate
-                irri_dem_gross =
-                    min(irri_dem_gross, sbm.nonpaddy.maximum_irrigation_rate[i])
-            else
-                irri_dem_gross = 0.0
-            end
-            sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[i] = irri_dem_gross
-        elseif !isnothing(sbm.paddy) && sbm.paddy.irrigation_areas[i]
-            if sbm.paddy.irrigation_trigger[i]
-                # check if maximum irrigation rate has been applied at the previous time step.
-                max_irri_rate_applied =
-                    sbm.paddy.demand_gross[i] == sbm.paddy.maximum_irrigation_rate[i]
-                # start irrigation
-                if sbm.paddy.h[i] < sbm.paddy.h_min[i]
-                    irr_depth_paddy = sbm.paddy.h_opt[i] - sbm.paddy.h[i]
-                elseif sbm.paddy.h[i] < sbm.paddy.h_opt[i] && max_irri_rate_applied # continue irrigation
-                    irr_depth_paddy = sbm.paddy.h_opt[i] - sbm.paddy.h[i]
-                else
-                    irr_depth_paddy = 0.0
-                end
-                irri_dem_gross += irr_depth_paddy / sbm.paddy.irrigation_efficiency[i]
-                # limit irrigation demand to the maximum irrigation rate
-                irri_dem_gross = min(irri_dem_gross, sbm.paddy.maximum_irrigation_rate[i])
-            end
-            sbm.paddy.demand_gross[i] = irri_dem_gross
-        end
-        # update gross water demands 
-        sbm.allocation.irri_demand_gross[i] = irri_dem_gross
-        sbm.allocation.nonirri_demand_gross[i] = industry_dem + domestic_dem + livestock_dem
-        sbm.allocation.total_gross_demand[i] =
-            irri_dem_gross + industry_dem + domestic_dem + livestock_dem
+        total_storage[i] += (sub_surface + lateral)
     end
-end
+    return nothing
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/sbm_model.jl b/src/sbm_model.jl
index 0ad9054f0..cd14aa7dc 100644
--- a/src/sbm_model.jl
+++ b/src/sbm_model.jl
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ Initial part of the SBM model concept. Reads the input settings and data as defi
 Config object. Will return a Model that is ready to run.
 """
 function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
-
     model_type = config.model.type::String
     @info "Initialize model variables for model type `$model_type`."
 
@@ -63,18 +62,18 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
     # read x, y coordinates and calculate cell length [m]
     y_nc = read_y_axis(nc)
     x_nc = read_x_axis(nc)
-    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc, outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
+    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc; outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
     cellength = abs(mean(diff(x_nc)))
 
     sizeinmetres = get(config.model, "sizeinmetres", false)::Bool
     xl, yl = cell_lengths(y, cellength, sizeinmetres)
     riverfrac = river_fraction(river, riverlength, riverwidth, xl, yl)
 
+    lhm = LandHydrologySBM(nc, config, riverfrac, inds)
+
     inds_riv, rev_inds_riv = active_indices(river_2d, 0)
     nriv = length(inds_riv)
 
-    sbm = initialize_sbm(nc, config, riverfrac, inds)
-
     # reservoirs
     pits = zeros(Bool, modelsize_2d)
     if do_reservoirs
@@ -123,23 +122,34 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
             type = Float,
         )
 
-        # unit for lateral subsurface flow component is [m³ d⁻¹], sbm.kv_0 [mm Δt⁻¹]
-        kh_0 = khfrac .* sbm.kv_0 .* 0.001 .* (basetimestep / dt)
-        f = sbm.f .* 1000.0
-        zi = sbm.zi .* 0.001
-        soilthickness = sbm.soilthickness .* 0.001
-        z_exp = sbm.z_exp .* 0.001
-
-        ssf = LateralSSF{Float}(
-            kh_0 = kh_0,
-            f = f,
-            kh = fill(mv, n),
+        (; theta_s, theta_r, soilthickness) = lhm.soil.parameters
+        (; zi) = lhm.soil.variables
+        ssf_soilthickness = soilthickness .* 0.001
+        ssf_zi = zi .* 0.001
+
+        kh_profile_type = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
+        if kh_profile_type == "exponential"
+            (; kv_0, f) = lhm.soil.parameters.kv_profile
+            kh_0 = khfrac .* kv_0 .* 0.001 .* (basetimestep / dt)
+            kh_profile = KhExponential(kh_0, f .* 1000.0)
+        elseif kh_profile_type == "exponential_constant"
+            (; z_exp) = lhm.soil.parameters.kv_profile
+            (; kv_0, f) = lhm.soil.parameters.kv_profile.exponential
+            kh_0 = khfrac .* kv_0 .* 0.001 .* (basetimestep / dt)
+            exp_profile = KhExponential(kh_0, f .* 1000.0)
+            kh_profile = KhExponentialConstant(exp_profile, z_exp .* 0.001)
+        elseif kh_profile_type == "layered" || kh_profile_type == "layered_exponential"
+            kh_profile = KhLayered(fill(mv, n))
+        end
+
+        # unit for lateral subsurface flow component is [m³ d⁻¹], kv_0 [mm Δt⁻¹]
+        ssf = LateralSSF{Float, typeof(kh_profile)}(;
+            kh_profile = kh_profile,
             khfrac = khfrac,
-            zi = zi,
-            z_exp = z_exp,
-            soilthickness = soilthickness,
-            theta_s = sbm.theta_s,
-            theta_r = sbm.theta_r,
+            zi = ssf_zi,
+            soilthickness = ssf_soilthickness,
+            theta_s,
+            theta_r,
             dt = dt / basetimestep,
             slope = landslope,
             dl = dl,
@@ -150,21 +160,19 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
             ssfin = fill(mv, n),
             ssfmax = fill(mv, n),
             to_river = zeros(n),
-            volume = (sbm.theta_s .- sbm.theta_r) .* (soilthickness .- zi) .* (xl .* yl),
+            volume = (theta_s .- theta_r) .* (ssf_soilthickness .- ssf_zi) .* (xl .* yl),
         )
         # update variables `ssf`, `ssfmax` and `kh` (layered profile) based on ksat_profile
-        ksat_profile = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
-        if ksat_profile == "exponential"
-            initialize_lateralssf_exp!(ssf::LateralSSF)
-        elseif ksat_profile == "exponential_constant"
-            initialize_lateralssf_exp_const!(ssf::LateralSSF)
-        elseif ksat_profile == "layered" || ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-            initialize_lateralssf_layered!(ssf::LateralSSF, sbm::SBM, ksat_profile)
+        if kh_profile_type == "exponential" || kh_profile_type == "exponential_constant"
+            initialize_lateralssf!(ssf, kh_profile)
+        elseif kh_profile_type == "layered" || kh_profile_type == "layered_exponential"
+            (; kv_profile) = lhm.soil.parameters
+            initialize_lateralssf!(ssf, lhm.soil, kv_profile, tosecond(dt))
         end
     else
         # when the SBM model is coupled (BMI) to a groundwater model, the following
         # variables are expected to be exchanged from the groundwater model.
-        ssf = GroundwaterExchange{Float}(
+        ssf = GroundwaterExchange{Float}(;
             dt = dt / basetimestep,
             exfiltwater = fill(mv, n),
             zi = fill(mv, n),
@@ -187,11 +195,12 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
     inds_allocation_areas = Vector{Int}[]
     inds_riv_allocation_areas = Vector{Int}[]
     if do_water_demand
-        areas = unique(sbm.allocation.areas)
+        areas = unique(lhm.allocation.parameters.areas)
         for a in areas
-            area_index = findall(x -> x == a, sbm.allocation.areas)
+            area_index = findall(x -> x == a, lhm.allocation.parameters.areas)
             push!(inds_allocation_areas, area_index)
-            area_riv_index = findall(x -> x == a, sbm.allocation.areas[index_river])
+            area_riv_index =
+                findall(x -> x == a, lhm.allocation.parameters.areas[index_river])
             push!(inds_riv_allocation_areas, area_riv_index)
         end
     end
@@ -312,21 +321,22 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
         end
     end
 
-    modelmap = (vertical = sbm, lateral = (subsurface = ssf, land = olf, river = rf))
+    modelmap = (vertical = lhm, lateral = (subsurface = ssf, land = olf, river = rf))
     indices_reverse = (
         land = rev_inds,
         river = rev_inds_riv,
         reservoir = isempty(reservoir) ? nothing : reservoir.reverse_indices,
         lake = isempty(lake) ? nothing : lake.reverse_indices,
     )
+    (; maxlayers) = lhm.soil.parameters
     writer = prepare_writer(
         config,
         modelmap,
         indices_reverse,
         x_nc,
         y_nc,
-        nc,
-        extra_dim = (name = "layer", value = Float64.(1:sbm.maxlayers)),
+        nc;
+        extra_dim = (name = "layer", value = Float64.(1:(maxlayers))),
     )
     close(nc)
 
@@ -418,112 +428,76 @@ function initialize_sbm_model(config::Config)
         config,
         (; land, river, reservoir, lake, index_river, frac_toriver),
         (subsurface = ssf, land = olf, river = rf),
-        sbm,
+        lhm,
         clock,
         reader,
         writer,
         SbmModel(),
     )
 
-    model = set_states(model)
+    set_states!(model)
 
     @info "Initialized model"
     return model
 end
 
 "update SBM model for a single timestep"
-function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
-
+function update!(model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T}) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
     do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
-    ksat_profile = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
+    (; kv_profile) = vertical.soil.parameters
 
-    model = update_until_recharge(model)
-    # exchange of recharge between vertical sbm concept and subsurface flow domain
-    lateral.subsurface.recharge .= vertical.recharge ./ 1000.0
+    update_until_recharge!(model)
+    # exchange of recharge between SBM soil model and subsurface flow domain
+    lateral.subsurface.recharge .= vertical.soil.variables.recharge ./ 1000.0
     if do_water_demand
-        @. lateral.subsurface.recharge -= vertical.allocation.act_groundwater_abst / 1000.0
+        @. lateral.subsurface.recharge -=
+            vertical.allocation.variables.act_groundwater_abst / 1000.0
     end
     lateral.subsurface.recharge .*= lateral.subsurface.dw
-    lateral.subsurface.zi .= vertical.zi ./ 1000.0
+    lateral.subsurface.zi .= vertical.soil.variables.zi ./ 1000.0
     # update lateral subsurface flow domain (kinematic wave)
-    if (ksat_profile == "layered") || (ksat_profile == "layered_exponential")
-        for i in eachindex(lateral.subsurface.kh)
-            lateral.subsurface.kh[i] =
-                kh_layered_profile(vertical, lateral.subsurface.khfrac[i], i, ksat_profile)
-        end
-    end
-    update(lateral.subsurface, network.land, network.frac_toriver, ksat_profile)
-    model = update_after_subsurfaceflow(model)
-    model = update_total_water_storage(model)
+    kh_layered_profile!(vertical.soil, lateral.subsurface, kv_profile, vertical.dt)
+    update!(lateral.subsurface, network.land, network.frac_toriver)
+    update_after_subsurfaceflow!(model)
+    update_total_water_storage!(model)
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    update_until_recharge(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+    update_until_recharge!(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
 
 Update SBM model until recharge for a single timestep. This function is also accessible
 through BMI, to couple the SBM model to an external groundwater model.
 """
-function update_until_recharge(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+function update_until_recharge!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
-
-    do_water_demand = haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
-
-    inds_riv = network.index_river
-
-    # extract water levels h_av [m] from the land and river domains
-    # this is used to limit open water evaporation
-    vertical.waterlevel_land .= lateral.land.h_av .* 1000.0
-    vertical.waterlevel_river[inds_riv] .= lateral.river.h_av .* 1000.0
-
-    # vertical sbm concept is updated until snow state, after that (optional)
-    # snow transport is possible
-    update_until_snow(vertical, config)
-
-    # lateral snow transport
-    if get(config.model, "masswasting", false)::Bool
-        lateral_snow_transport!(
-            vertical.snow,
-            vertical.snowwater,
-            network.land.slope,
-            network.land,
-        )
-    end
-
-    # optional water demand and allocation
-    if do_water_demand
-        update_water_demand(vertical)
-        update_water_allocation(model)
-    end
-
-    # update vertical sbm concept until recharge [mm] to the saturated store
-    update_until_recharge(vertical, config)
-
-    return model
+    update!(vertical, lateral, network, config)
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
-    update_after_subsurfaceflow(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+    update_after_subsurfaceflow!(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
 
 Update SBM model after subsurface flow for a single timestep. This function is also
 accessible through BMI, to couple the SBM model to an external groundwater model.
 """
-function update_after_subsurfaceflow(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+function update_after_subsurfaceflow!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmModel}
     (; lateral, vertical) = model
+    (; soil, runoff, demand) = vertical
+    (; subsurface) = lateral
 
-    # update vertical sbm concept (runoff, ustorelayerdepth and satwaterdepth)
-    update_after_subsurfaceflow(
-        vertical,
-        lateral.subsurface.zi * 1000.0,
-        lateral.subsurface.exfiltwater * 1000.0,
-    )
+    # update SBM soil model (runoff, ustorelayerdepth and satwaterdepth)
+    update!(soil, (; runoff, demand, subsurface))
 
     ssf_toriver = lateral.subsurface.to_river ./ tosecond(basetimestep)
-    surface_routing(model, ssf_toriver = ssf_toriver)
+    surface_routing!(model; ssf_toriver = ssf_toriver)
 
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -531,24 +505,26 @@ Update of the total water storage at the end of each timestep per model cell.
 
 This is done here at model level.
 """
-function update_total_water_storage(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SbmModel}
+function update_total_water_storage!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SbmModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network) = model
 
     # Update the total water storage based on vertical states
     # TODO Maybe look at routing in the near future
-    update_total_water_storage(
+    update_total_water_storage!(
         vertical,
         network.index_river,
         network.land.area,
         lateral.river,
         lateral.land,
     )
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function set_states(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:Union{SbmModel,SbmGwfModel}}
+function set_states!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: Union{SbmModel, SbmGwfModel}}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
 
     reinit = get(config.model, "reinit", true)::Bool
@@ -563,21 +539,16 @@ function set_states(
         nriv = length(network.river.indices)
         instate_path = input_path(config, config.state.path_input)
         @info "Set initial conditions from state file `$instate_path`."
-        if T <: SbmModel
-            @warn string(
-                "The unit of `ssf` (lateral subsurface flow) is now m3 d-1. Please update your",
-                " input state file if it was produced with a Wflow version up to v0.5.2.",
-            )
-        end
-        set_states(instate_path, model; type = Float, dimname = :layer)
-        # update zi for vertical sbm
+        set_states!(instate_path, model; type = Float, dimname = :layer)
+        # update zi for SBM soil model
         zi =
             max.(
                 0.0,
-                vertical.soilthickness .-
-                vertical.satwaterdepth ./ (vertical.theta_s .- vertical.theta_r),
+                vertical.soil.parameters.soilthickness .-
+                vertical.soil.variables.satwaterdepth ./
+                (vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s .- vertical.soil.parameters.theta_r),
             )
-        vertical.zi .= zi
+        vertical.soil.variables.zi .= zi
         if land_routing == "kinematic-wave"
             # make sure land cells with zero flow width are set to zero q and h
             for i in eachindex(lateral.land.width)
@@ -588,12 +559,6 @@ function set_states(
             end
             lateral.land.volume .= lateral.land.h .* lateral.land.width .* lateral.land.dl
         elseif land_routing == "local-inertial"
-            @warn string(
-                "The reference level for the water depth `h` and `h_av` of overland flow ",
-                "(local inertial model) for cells containing a river has changed from river",
-                " bed elevation `zb` to cell elevation `z`. Please update the input state",
-                " file if it was produced with Wflow version v0.5.2.",
-            )
             for i in eachindex(lateral.land.volume)
                 if lateral.land.rivercells[i]
                     j = network.land.index_river[i]
@@ -632,5 +597,5 @@ function set_states(
     else
         @info "Set initial conditions from default values."
     end
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
diff --git a/src/sediment.jl b/src/sediment.jl
index 13a919114..ec5c8f8d1 100644
--- a/src/sediment.jl
+++ b/src/sediment.jl
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 ### Soil erosion ###
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct LandSediment{T}
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct LandSediment{T}
     # number of cells
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
+    n::Int | "-" | "none"
     ### Soil erosion part ###
     # length of cells in y direction [m]
     yl::Vector{T} | "m"
@@ -99,6 +99,52 @@
     end
 end
 
+# This function is not used by SBM (was part of sbm.jl)
+function initialize_canopy(nc, config, inds)
+    n = length(inds)
+    # if leaf area index climatology provided use sl, swood and kext to calculate cmax, e_r and canopygapfraction
+    if haskey(config.input.vertical, "leaf_area_index")
+        # TODO confirm if leaf area index climatology is present in the netCDF
+        sl = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.specific_leaf";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        swood = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.storage_wood";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        kext =
+            ncread(nc, config, "vertical.kext"; optional = false, sel = inds, type = Float)
+        cmax = fill(mv, n)
+        e_r = fill(mv, n)
+        canopygapfraction = fill(mv, n)
+    else
+        sl = fill(mv, n)
+        swood = fill(mv, n)
+        kext = fill(mv, n)
+        # cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction only required when leaf area index climatology not provided
+        cmax = ncread(nc, config, "vertical.cmax"; sel = inds, defaults = 1.0, type = Float)
+        e_r =
+            ncread(nc, config, "vertical.eoverr"; sel = inds, defaults = 0.1, type = Float)
+        canopygapfraction = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.canopygapfraction";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.1,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+    end
+    return cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction, sl, swood, kext
+end
 
 function initialize_landsed(nc, config, river, riverfrac, xl, yl, inds)
     # Initialize parameters for the soil loss part
@@ -189,7 +235,7 @@ function initialize_landsed(nc, config, river, riverfrac, xl, yl, inds)
         fsilt = 0.13 .* psilt ./ 100
         fsand = 0.01 .* psand .* (1 .- 0.01 .* pclay) .^ (2.4)
         fsagg = 0.28 .* (0.01 .* pclay .- 0.25) .+ 0.5
-        for i = 1:n
+        for i in 1:n
             if pclay[i] > 50.0
                 fsagg[i] = 0.57
             elseif pclay[i] < 25
@@ -232,7 +278,7 @@ function initialize_landsed(nc, config, river, riverfrac, xl, yl, inds)
         wbcover = wbcover .+ lakecoverage_2d
     end
 
-    eros = LandSediment{Float}(
+    eros = LandSediment{Float}(;
         n = n,
         yl = yl,
         xl = xl,
@@ -300,14 +346,14 @@ function initialize_landsed(nc, config, river, riverfrac, xl, yl, inds)
 end
 
 # Soil erosion
-function update_until_ols(eros::LandSediment, config)
+function update_until_ols!(eros::LandSediment, config)
     # Options from config
     do_lai = haskey(config.input.vertical, "leaf_area_index")
     rainerosmethod = get(config.model, "rainerosmethod", "answers")::String
     dt = Second(config.timestepsecs)
     ts = Float(dt.value)
 
-    for i = 1:eros.n
+    for i in 1:(eros.n)
 
         ### Splash / Rainfall erosion ###
         # ANSWERS method
@@ -392,18 +438,17 @@ function update_until_ols(eros::LandSediment, config)
         eros.erossagg[i] = soilloss * eros.fsagg[i]
         eros.eroslagg[i] = soilloss * eros.flagg[i]
     end
-
+    return nothing
 end
 
 ### Sediment transport capacity in overland flow ###
-function update_until_oltransport(ols::LandSediment, config::Config)
-
+function update_until_oltransport!(ols::LandSediment, config::Config)
     do_river = get(config.model, "runrivermodel", false)::Bool
     tcmethod = get(config.model, "landtransportmethod", "yalinpart")::String
     dt = Second(config.timestepsecs)
     ts = Float(dt.value)
 
-    for i = 1:ols.n
+    for i in 1:(ols.n)
         sinslope = sin(atan(ols.slope[i]))
 
         if !do_river
@@ -441,7 +486,7 @@ function update_until_oltransport(ols::LandSediment, config::Config)
         ols.TCsagg[i] = TCsagg
         ols.TClagg[i] = TClagg
     end
-
+    return nothing
 end
 
 function tc_govers(ols::LandSediment, i::Int, sinslope::Float, ts::Float)::Float
@@ -591,9 +636,9 @@ function tc_yalinpart(ols::LandSediment, i::Int, sinslope::Float, ts::Float)
 end
 
 ### Sediment transport in overland flow ###
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct OverlandFlowSediment{T}
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct OverlandFlowSediment{T}
     # number of cells
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
+    n::Int | "-" | "none"
     # Filter with river cells
     rivcell::Vector{T} | "-"
     # Total eroded soil [ton Δt⁻¹]
@@ -627,14 +672,12 @@ end
     inlandsagg::Vector{T} | "t dt-1"
     inlandlagg::Vector{T} | "t dt-1"
 
-
     function OverlandFlowSediment{T}(args...) where {T}
         equal_size_vectors(args)
         return new(args...)
     end
 end
 
-
 function partial_update!(inland, rivcell, eroded)
     no_erosion = zero(eltype(eroded))
     for i in eachindex(inland)
@@ -643,7 +686,7 @@ function partial_update!(inland, rivcell, eroded)
     return inland
 end
 
-function update(ols::OverlandFlowSediment, network, config)
+function update!(ols::OverlandFlowSediment, network, config)
     do_river = get(config.model, "runrivermodel", false)::Bool
     tcmethod = get(config.model, "landtransportmethod", "yalinpart")::String
     zeroarr = fill(0.0, ols.n)
@@ -675,14 +718,15 @@ function update(ols::OverlandFlowSediment, network, config)
         accucapacityflux!(ols.olsed, ols.soilloss, network, ols.TCsed)
         ols.inlandsed .= ifelse.(ols.rivcell .== 1, ols.soilloss, zeroarr)
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 ### River transport and processes ###
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct RiverSediment{T}
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct RiverSediment{T}
     # number of cells
-    n::Int | "-" | 0 | "none" | "none"
+    n::Int | "-" | "none"
     # Timestep [s]
-    dt::T | "s" | 0 | "none" | "none"
+    dt::T | "s"
     # River geometry (slope [-], length [m], width [m])
     sl::Vector{T} | "m"
     dl::Vector{T} | "m"
@@ -782,7 +826,6 @@ end
     # end
 end
 
-
 function initialize_riversed(nc, config, riverwidth, riverlength, inds_riv)
     # Initialize river parameters
     nriv = length(inds_riv)
@@ -1012,7 +1055,7 @@ function initialize_riversed(nc, config, riverwidth, riverlength, inds_riv)
     ck = zeros(Float, nriv)
     dk = zeros(Float, nriv)
     if tcmethodriv == "kodatie"
-        for i = 1:nriv
+        for i in 1:nriv
             if d50riv[i] <= 0.05
                 ak[i] = 281.4
                 bk[i] = 2.622
@@ -1050,7 +1093,7 @@ function initialize_riversed(nc, config, riverwidth, riverlength, inds_riv)
     kdbank = @. Float(0.2 * TCrbank^(-0.5) * 1e-6)
     kdbed = @. Float(0.2 * TCrbed^(-0.5) * 1e-6)
 
-    rs = RiverSediment(
+    rs = RiverSediment(;
         n = nriv,
         dt = Float(dt.value),
         # Parameters
@@ -1132,7 +1175,7 @@ function initialize_riversed(nc, config, riverwidth, riverlength, inds_riv)
     return rs
 end
 
-function update(rs::RiverSediment, network, config)
+function update!(rs::RiverSediment, network, config)
     (; graph, order) = network
     tcmethod = get(config.model, "rivtransportmethod", "bagnold")::String
 
@@ -1572,7 +1615,6 @@ function update(rs::RiverSediment, network, config)
 
         rs.SSconc[v] = SS * toconc
         rs.Bedconc[v] = Bed * toconc
-
     end
-
+    return nothing
 end
diff --git a/src/sediment_model.jl b/src/sediment_model.jl
index 2c5d5ebd6..cf2b78eaf 100644
--- a/src/sediment_model.jl
+++ b/src/sediment_model.jl
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ Initial part of the sediment model concept. Reads the input settings and data as
 Config object. Will return a Model that is ready to run.
 """
 function initialize_sediment_model(config::Config)
-
     model_type = config.model.type::String
     @info "Initialize model variables for model type `$model_type`."
 
@@ -47,7 +46,7 @@ function initialize_sediment_model(config::Config)
     # read x, y coordinates and calculate cell length [m]
     y_nc = read_y_axis(nc)
     x_nc = read_x_axis(nc)
-    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc, outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
+    y = permutedims(repeat(y_nc; outer = (1, length(x_nc))))[inds]
     cellength = abs(mean(diff(x_nc)))
 
     sizeinmetres = get(config.model, "sizeinmetres", false)::Bool
@@ -61,7 +60,7 @@ function initialize_sediment_model(config::Config)
 
     # # lateral part sediment in overland flow
     rivcell = float(river)
-    ols = OverlandFlowSediment{Float}(
+    ols = OverlandFlowSediment{Float}(;
         n = n,
         rivcell = rivcell,
         soilloss = fill(mv, n),
@@ -148,17 +147,17 @@ function initialize_sediment_model(config::Config)
         SedimentModel(),
     )
 
-    model = set_states(model)
+    set_states!(model)
     @info "Initialized model"
 
     return model
 end
 
-function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SedimentModel}
+function update!(model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T}) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SedimentModel}
     (; lateral, vertical, network, config) = model
 
-    update_until_ols(vertical, config)
-    update_until_oltransport(vertical, config)
+    update_until_ols!(vertical, config)
+    update_until_oltransport!(vertical, config)
 
     lateral.land.soilloss .= vertical.soilloss
     lateral.land.erosclay .= vertical.erosclay
@@ -174,7 +173,7 @@ function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SedimentModel}
     lateral.land.TCsagg .= vertical.TCsagg
     lateral.land.TClagg .= vertical.TClagg
 
-    update(lateral.land, network.land, config)
+    update!(lateral.land, network.land, config)
 
     do_river = get(config.model, "runrivermodel", false)::Bool
 
@@ -186,22 +185,24 @@ function update(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SedimentModel}
         lateral.river.inlandsagg .= lateral.land.inlandsagg[inds_riv]
         lateral.river.inlandlagg .= lateral.land.inlandlagg[inds_riv]
 
-        update(lateral.river, network.river, config)
+        update!(lateral.river, network.river, config)
     end
 
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
 
-function set_states(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:SedimentModel}
+function set_states!(
+    model::Model{N, L, V, R, W, T},
+) where {N, L, V, R, W, T <: SedimentModel}
     # read and set states in model object if reinit=false
     (; config) = model
     reinit = get(config.model, "reinit", true)::Bool
     if reinit == false
         instate_path = input_path(config, config.state.path_input)
         @info "Set initial conditions from state file `$instate_path`."
-        set_states(instate_path, model; type = Float)
+        set_states!(instate_path, model; type = Float)
     else
         @info "Set initial conditions from default values."
     end
-    return model
+    return nothing
 end
diff --git a/src/snow/snow.jl b/src/snow/snow.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a60521b13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/snow/snow.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+abstract type AbstractSnowModel{T} end
+
+"Struct for storing snow model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SnowVariables{T}
+    # Snow storage [mm]
+    snow_storage::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Liquid water content in the snow pack [mm]
+    snow_water::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Snow water equivalent (SWE) [mm]
+    swe::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Snow melt [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    snow_melt::Vector{T}
+    # Runoff from snowpack [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    runoff::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize snow model variables"
+function SnowVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return SnowVariables{T}(;
+        snow_storage = fill(0.0, n),
+        snow_water = fill(0.0, n),
+        swe = fill(mv, n),
+        runoff = fill(mv, n),
+        snow_melt = fill(mv, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Struct for storing snow model boundary conditions"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SnowBC{T}
+    # Effective precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    effective_precip::Vector{T}
+    # Snow precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    snow_precip::Vector{T}
+    # Liquid precipitation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    liquid_precip::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize snow model boundary conditions"
+function SnowBC(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return SnowBC{T}(;
+        effective_precip = fill(mv, n),
+        snow_precip = fill(mv, n),
+        liquid_precip = fill(mv, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Struct for storing snow HBV model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SnowHbvParameters{T}
+    # Degree-day factor [mm ᵒC⁻¹ Δt⁻¹]
+    cfmax::Vector{T} | "mm ᵒC-1 dt-1"
+    # Threshold temperature for snowfall [ᵒC]
+    tt::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
+    # Threshold temperature interval length [ᵒC]
+    tti::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
+    # Threshold temperature for snowmelt [ᵒC]
+    ttm::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
+    # Water holding capacity as fraction of current snow pack [-]
+    whc::Vector{T} | "-"
+end
+
+"Snow HBV model"
+@with_kw struct SnowHbvModel{T} <: AbstractSnowModel{T}
+    boundary_conditions::SnowBC{T}
+    parameters::SnowHbvParameters{T}
+    variables::SnowVariables{T}
+end
+
+struct NoSnowModel{T} <: AbstractSnowModel{T} end
+
+"Initialize snow HBV model parameters"
+function SnowHbvParameters(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    cfmax =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.snow.parameters.cfmax";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 3.75653,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    tt = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.snow.parameters.tt";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    tti = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.snow.parameters.tti";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    ttm = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.snow.parameters.ttm";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    whc = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.snow.parameters.whc";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.1,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    snow_hbv_params =
+        SnowHbvParameters(; cfmax = cfmax, tt = tt, tti = tti, ttm = ttm, whc = whc)
+    return snow_hbv_params
+end
+
+"Initialize snow HBV model"
+function SnowHbvModel(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    n = length(inds)
+    params = SnowHbvParameters(nc, config, inds, dt)
+    vars = SnowVariables(Float, n)
+    bc = SnowBC(Float, n)
+    model = SnowHbvModel(; boundary_conditions = bc, parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Update boundary condition (effective precipitation provided by an interception model) of a snow model for a single timestep"
+function update_boundary_conditions!(model::AbstractSnowModel, external_models::NamedTuple)
+    (; effective_precip) = model.boundary_conditions
+    (; interception) = external_models
+    @. effective_precip =
+        interception.variables.throughfall + interception.variables.stemflow
+    return nothing
+end
+
+function update_boundary_conditions!(model::NoSnowModel, external_models::NamedTuple)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update snow HBV model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::SnowHbvModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    (; temperature) = atmospheric_forcing
+    (; snow_storage, snow_water, swe, snow_melt, runoff) = model.variables
+    (; effective_precip, snow_precip, liquid_precip) = model.boundary_conditions
+    (; tt, tti, ttm, cfmax, whc) = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(temperature)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        snow_precip[i], liquid_precip[i] =
+            precipitation_hbv(effective_precip[i], temperature[i], tti[i], tt[i])
+    end
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        snow_storage[i], snow_water[i], swe[i], snow_melt[i], runoff[i] = snowpack_hbv(
+            snow_storage[i],
+            snow_water[i],
+            snow_precip[i],
+            liquid_precip[i],
+            temperature[i],
+            ttm[i],
+            cfmax[i],
+            whc[i],
+        )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+function update!(model::NoSnowModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+# wrapper methods
+get_runoff(model::NoSnowModel) = 0.0
+get_runoff(model::AbstractSnowModel) = model.variables.runoff
+get_snow_storage(model::NoSnowModel) = 0.0
+get_snow_storage(model::AbstractSnowModel) = model.variables.snow_storage
+get_snow_water(model::NoSnowModel) = 0.0
+get_snow_water(model::AbstractSnowModel) = model.variables.snow_water
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/snow/snow_process.jl b/src/snow/snow_process.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b61b0af88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/snow/snow_process.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+
+"""
+    snowpack_hbv(snow, snowwater, snow_precip, liquid_precip, temperature, ttm, cfmax, whc; cfr = 0.05)
+
+HBV type snowpack modeling using a temperature degree factor.
+The refreezing efficiency factor `cfr` is set to 0.05.
+
+# Arguments
+- `snow` (snow storage)
+- `snowwater` (liquid water content in the snow pack)
+- `snow_precip` (snow precipitation)
+- `liquid_precip` (liquid precipitation)
+- `ttm` (melting threshold)
+- `cfmax` (degree day factor, rate of snowmelt)
+- `whc` (water holding capacity of snow)
+- `cfr` refreeing efficiency constant in refreezing of liquied water in snow
+
+# Output
+- `snow`
+- `snowwater`
+- `swe` (snow water equivalent)
+- `runoff`
+"""
+function snowpack_hbv(
+    snow,
+    snowwater,
+    snow_precip,
+    liquid_precip,
+    temperature,
+    ttm,
+    cfmax,
+    whc;
+    cfr = 0.05,
+)
+    # potential snow melt, based on temperature
+    potsnowmelt = temperature > ttm ? cfmax * (temperature - ttm) : 0.0
+    # potential refreezing, based on temperature
+    potrefreezing = temperature < ttm ? cfmax * cfr * (ttm - temperature) : 0.0
+    # actual refreezing
+    refreezing = temperature < ttm ? min(potrefreezing, snowwater) : 0.0
+
+    # no landuse correction here
+    snowmelt = min(potsnowmelt, snow)  # actual snow melt
+    snow = snow + snow_precip + refreezing - snowmelt  # dry snow content
+    snowwater = snowwater - refreezing  # free water content in snow
+    maxsnowwater = snow * whc  # max water in the snow
+    snowwater = snowwater + snowmelt + liquid_precip  # add all water and potentially supersaturate the snowpack
+    runoff = max(snowwater - maxsnowwater, 0.0)  # rain + surpluss snowwater
+    snowwater = snowwater - runoff
+    swe = snowwater + snow # snow water equivalent
+
+    return snow, snowwater, swe, snowmelt, runoff
+end
+
+"""
+    precipitation_hbv(precipitation, temperature, tti, tt; rfcf = 1.0, sfcf = 1.0)
+
+HBV type precipitation routine to separate precipitation in snow precipitation and liquid precipitation. 
+All correction factors (RFCF and SFCF) are set to 1.
+
+# Arguments
+- `precipitation`
+- `temperature` (threshold temperature for snowfall)
+- `tti` (snowfall threshold interval length)
+- `tt` (threshold temperature for snowfall)
+- `rfcf` correction factor for liquid precipitation (rainfall)
+- `sfcf` correction factor for snow precipitation (snowfall)
+
+# Output
+- `snow_precip`
+- `liquid_precip`
+"""
+function precipitation_hbv(precipitation, temperature, tti, tt; rfcf = 1.0, sfcf = 1.0)
+    # fraction of precipitation which falls as rain
+    rainfrac = if iszero(tti)
+        Float(temperature > tt)
+    else
+        frac = (temperature - (tt - tti / 2.0)) / tti
+        min(frac, 1.0)
+    end
+    rainfrac = max(rainfrac, 0.0)
+
+    # fraction of precipitation which falls as snow
+    snowfrac = 1.0 - rainfrac
+    # different correction for liquid_precip and snow_precip
+    snow_precip = snowfrac * sfcf * precipitation  # snow_precip depth
+    liquid_precip = rainfrac * rfcf * precipitation  # liquid_precip depth
+    return snow_precip, liquid_precip
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/soil/soil.jl b/src/soil/soil.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..157869c2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/soil/soil.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,1302 @@
+abstract type AbstractSoilModel{T} end
+
+"Struct for storing SBM soil model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SbmSoilVariables{T, N}
+    # Calculated soil water pressure head h3 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h3::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Unsaturated store capacity [mm]
+    ustorecapacity::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Amount of water in the unsaturated store, per layer [mm]
+    ustorelayerdepth::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "mm"
+    # Thickness of unsaturated zone, per layer [mm]
+    ustorelayerthickness::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "mm"
+    # Saturated store [mm]
+    satwaterdepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Pseudo-water table depth [mm] (top of the saturated zone)
+    zi::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Number of unsaturated soil layers
+    n_unsatlayers::Vector{Int} | "-"
+    # Transpiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    transpiration::Vector{T}
+    # Actual evaporation from unsaturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    ae_ustore::Vector{T}
+    # Soil evaporation from unsaturated and saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    soilevap::Vector{T}
+    # Soil evaporation from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    soilevapsat::Vector{T}
+    # Actual capillary rise [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actcapflux::Vector{T}
+    # Actual transpiration from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actevapsat::Vector{T}
+    # Total actual evapotranspiration [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actevap::Vector{T}
+    # Actual infiltration into the unsaturated zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actinfilt::Vector{T}
+    # Actual infiltration non-compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actinfiltsoil::Vector{T}
+    # Actual infiltration compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actinfiltpath::Vector{T}
+    # Actual infiltration (compacted and the non-compacted areas) [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    infiltsoilpath::Vector{T}
+    # Infiltration excess water [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    infiltexcess::Vector{T}
+    # Water that cannot infiltrate due to saturated soil (saturation excess) [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    excesswater::Vector{T}
+    # Water exfiltrating during saturation excess conditions [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    exfiltsatwater::Vector{T}
+    # Water exfiltrating from unsaturated store because of change in water table [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    exfiltustore::Vector{T}
+    # Excess water for non-compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    excesswatersoil::Vector{T}
+    # Excess water for compacted fraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    excesswaterpath::Vector{T}
+    # Total surface runoff from infiltration and saturation excess (excluding actual open water evaporation) [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    runoff::Vector{T}
+    # Net surface runoff (surface runoff - actual open water evaporation) [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    net_runoff::Vector{T}
+    # Volumetric water content [-] per soil layer (including theta_r and saturated zone)
+    vwc::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "-"
+    # Volumetric water content [%] per soil layer (including theta_r and saturated zone)
+    vwc_perc::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "%"
+    # Root water storage [mm] in unsaturated and saturated zone (excluding theta_r)
+    rootstore::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Volumetric water content [-] in root zone (including theta_r and saturated zone)
+    vwc_root::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Volumetric water content [%] in root zone (including theta_r and saturated zone)
+    vwc_percroot::Vector{T} | "%"
+    # Amount of available water in the unsaturated zone [mm]
+    ustoredepth::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Downward flux from unsaturated to saturated zone [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    transfer::Vector{T}
+    # Net recharge to saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    recharge::Vector{T}
+    # Actual leakage from saturated store [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    actleakage::Vector{T}
+    # Total water storage (excluding floodplain volume, lakes and reservoirs) [mm]
+    total_storage::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Top soil temperature [ᵒC]
+    tsoil::Vector{T} | "ᵒC"
+    # Soil infiltration reduction factor (when soil is frozen) [-]
+    f_infiltration_reduction::Vector{T} | "-"
+end
+
+"Initialize SBM soil model variables"
+function SbmSoilVariables(n, parameters)
+    (;
+        soilthickness,
+        maxlayers,
+        act_thickl,
+        sumlayers,
+        soilwatercapacity,
+        theta_s,
+        theta_r,
+    ) = parameters
+    satwaterdepth = 0.85 .* soilwatercapacity # cold state value for satwaterdepth
+    zi = @. max(0.0, soilthickness - satwaterdepth / (theta_s - theta_r))
+    ustorelayerthickness = set_layerthickness.(zi, sumlayers, act_thickl)
+    n_unsatlayers = number_of_active_layers.(ustorelayerthickness)
+
+    vwc = fill(mv, maxlayers, n)
+    vwc_perc = fill(mv, maxlayers, n)
+
+    vars = SbmSoilVariables(;
+        ustorelayerdepth = zero(act_thickl),
+        ustorecapacity = soilwatercapacity .- satwaterdepth,
+        ustorelayerthickness,
+        satwaterdepth,
+        zi,
+        n_unsatlayers,
+        transpiration = fill(mv, n),
+        h3 = fill(mv, n),
+        ae_ustore = fill(mv, n),
+        soilevap = fill(mv, n),
+        soilevapsat = fill(mv, n),
+        actcapflux = fill(mv, n),
+        actevapsat = fill(mv, n),
+        actevap = fill(mv, n),
+        f_infiltration_reduction = fill(Float(1), n),
+        actinfilt = fill(mv, n),
+        actinfiltsoil = fill(mv, n),
+        actinfiltpath = fill(mv, n),
+        infiltsoilpath = fill(mv, n),
+        infiltexcess = fill(mv, n),
+        excesswater = fill(mv, n),
+        exfiltsatwater = fill(mv, n),
+        exfiltustore = fill(mv, n),
+        excesswatersoil = fill(mv, n),
+        excesswaterpath = fill(mv, n),
+        runoff = fill(mv, n),
+        net_runoff = fill(mv, n),
+        vwc = svectorscopy(vwc, Val{maxlayers}()),
+        vwc_perc = svectorscopy(vwc_perc, Val{maxlayers}()),
+        rootstore = fill(mv, n),
+        vwc_root = fill(mv, n),
+        vwc_percroot = fill(mv, n),
+        ustoredepth = fill(mv, n),
+        transfer = fill(mv, n),
+        recharge = fill(mv, n),
+        actleakage = fill(mv, n),
+        tsoil = fill(Float(10.0), n),
+        total_storage = zeros(Float, n), # Set the total water storage from initialized values
+    )
+    return vars
+end
+
+"Struct for storing SBM soil model boundary conditions"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SbmSoilBC{T}
+    # Water flux at the soil surface [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    water_flux_surface::Vector{T}
+    # Potential transpiration rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    potential_transpiration::Vector{T}
+    # Potential soil evaporation rate [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    potential_soilevaporation::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize SBM soil model boundary conditions"
+function SbmSoilBC(
+    n;
+    water_flux_surface::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+    potential_transpiration::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+    potential_soilevaporation::Vector{T} = fill(mv, n),
+) where {T}
+    return SbmSoilBC{T}(;
+        water_flux_surface = water_flux_surface,
+        potential_transpiration = potential_transpiration,
+        potential_soilevaporation = potential_soilevaporation,
+    )
+end
+
+"Exponential depth profile of vertical hydraulic conductivity at the soil surface"
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KvExponential{T}
+    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity [mm Δt⁻¹] at soil surface
+    kv_0::Vector{T}
+    # A scaling parameter [mm⁻¹] (controls exponential decline of kv_0)
+    f::Vector{T} | "mm-1"
+end
+
+"Exponential constant depth profile of vertical hydraulic conductivity"
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KvExponentialConstant{T}
+    exponential::KvExponential{T}
+    # Depth [mm] from soil surface for which exponential decline of kv_0 is valid
+    z_exp::Vector{T} | "mm"
+end
+
+"Layered depth profile of vertical hydraulic conductivity"
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KvLayered{T, N}
+    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity [mm Δt⁻¹] per soil layer
+    kv::Vector{SVector{N, T}}
+end
+
+"Layered exponential depth profile of vertical hydraulic conductivity"
+@get_units @grid_loc struct KvLayeredExponential{T, N}
+    # A scaling parameter [mm⁻¹] (controls exponential decline of kv_0)
+    f::Vector{T} | "mm-1"
+    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity [mm Δt⁻¹] per soil layer
+    kv::Vector{SVector{N, T}}
+    # Number of soil layers with vertical hydraulic conductivity value `kv`
+    nlayers_kv::Vector{Int} | "-"
+    # Depth [mm] from soil surface for which layered profile is valid
+    z_layered::Vector{T} | "mm"
+end
+
+"Initialize SBM soil model hydraulic conductivity depth profile"
+function sbm_kv_profiles(nc, config, inds, kv_0, f, maxlayers, nlayers, sumlayers, dt)
+    kv_profile_type = get(config.input.vertical, "ksat_profile", "exponential")::String
+    n = length(inds)
+    if kv_profile_type == "exponential"
+        kv_profile = KvExponential(kv_0, f)
+    elseif kv_profile_type == "exponential_constant"
+        z_exp = ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.z_exp";
+            optional = false,
+            sel = inds,
+            type = Float,
+        )
+        exp_profile = KvExponential(kv_0, f)
+        kv_profile = KvExponentialConstant(exp_profile, z_exp)
+    elseif kv_profile_type == "layered" || kv_profile_type == "layered_exponential"
+        kv =
+            ncread(
+                nc,
+                config,
+                "vertical.soil.parameters.kv";
+                sel = inds,
+                defaults = 1000.0,
+                type = Float,
+                dimname = :layer,
+            ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+        if size(kv, 1) != maxlayers
+            parname = param(config.input.vertical.soil.parameter, "kv")
+            size1 = size(kv, 1)
+            error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
+        end
+        if kv_profile_type == "layered"
+            kv_profile = KvLayered(svectorscopy(kv, Val{maxlayers}()))
+        else
+            z_layered = ncread(
+                nc,
+                config,
+                "vertical.soil.parameters.z_layered";
+                optional = false,
+                sel = inds,
+                type = Float,
+            )
+            nlayers_kv = fill(0, n)
+            for i in eachindex(nlayers_kv)
+                layers = @view sumlayers[i][2:nlayers[i]]
+                _, k = findmin(abs.(z_layered[i] .- layers))
+                nlayers_kv[i] = k
+                z_layered[i] = layers[k]
+            end
+            kv_profile = KvLayeredExponential(
+                f,
+                svectorscopy(kv, Val{maxlayers}()),
+                nlayers_kv,
+                z_layered,
+            )
+        end
+    else
+        error("""An unknown "ksat_profile" is specified in the TOML file ($ksat_profile).
+              This should be "exponential", "exponential_constant", "layered" or
+              "layered_exponential".
+              """)
+    end
+    return kv_profile
+end
+
+"Struct for storing SBM soil model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct SbmSoilParameters{T, N, M, Kv}
+    # Maximum number of soil layers [-]
+    maxlayers::Int
+    # Number of soil layers
+    nlayers::Vector{Int} | "-"
+    # Saturated water content (porosity) [-]
+    theta_s::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Residual water content [-]
+    theta_r::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Soilwater capacity [mm]
+    soilwatercapacity::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Muliplication factor [-] applied to kv_z (vertical flow)
+    kvfrac::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "-"
+    # Air entry pressure [cm] of soil (Brooks-Corey)
+    hb::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Soil thickness [mm]
+    soilthickness::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Thickness of soil layers [mm]
+    act_thickl::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "mm"
+    # Cumulative sum of soil layers [mm], starting at soil surface (0)
+    sumlayers::Vector{SVector{M, T}} | "mm"
+    # Infiltration capacity of the compacted areas [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    infiltcappath::Vector{T}
+    # Soil infiltration capacity [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    infiltcapsoil::Vector{T}
+    # Maximum leakage [mm Δt⁻¹] from saturated zone
+    maxleakage::Vector{T}
+    # Parameter [mm] controlling capillary rise
+    cap_hmax::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Coefficient [-] controlling capillary rise
+    cap_n::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Brooks-Corey power coefficient [-] for each soil layer
+    c::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "-"
+    # Soil temperature smooth factor [-]
+    w_soil::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Controls soil infiltration reduction factor when soil is frozen [-]
+    cf_soil::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Fraction of compacted area  [-]
+    pathfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Controls how roots are linked to water table [-]
+    rootdistpar::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Fraction of the root length density in each soil layer [-]
+    rootfraction::Vector{SVector{N, T}} | "-"
+    # Soil water pressure head h1 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h1::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Soil water pressure head h2 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h2::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Soil water pressure head h3_high of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h3_high::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Soil water pressure head h3_low of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h3_low::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Soil water pressure head h4 of the root water uptake reduction function (Feddes) [cm]
+    h4::Vector{T} | "cm"
+    # Root water uptake reduction at soil water pressure head h1 (0.0 or 1.0) [-]
+    alpha_h1::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Soil fraction [-]
+    soil_fraction::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Vertical hydraulic conductivity profile type
+    kv_profile::Kv
+    # Vegetation parameter set
+    vegetation_parameter_set::VegetationParameters{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize SBM soil model parameters"
+function SbmSoilParameters(nc, config, vegetation_parameter_set, inds, dt)
+    config_thicknesslayers = get(config.model, "thicknesslayers", Float[])
+    if length(config_thicknesslayers) > 0
+        thicknesslayers = SVector(Tuple(push!(Float.(config_thicknesslayers), mv)))
+        cum_depth_layers = pushfirst(cumsum(thicknesslayers), 0.0)
+        maxlayers = length(thicknesslayers) # max number of soil layers
+    else
+        thicknesslayers = SVector.(soilthickness)
+        cum_depth_layers = pushfirst(cumsum(thicknesslayers), 0.0)
+        maxlayers = 1
+    end
+    w_soil =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.w_soil";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.1125,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    cf_soil = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.cf_soil";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.038,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    # soil parameters
+    theta_s = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.6,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    theta_r = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_r";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.01,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    kv_0 =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.kv_0";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 3000.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    f = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.f";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.001,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    hb = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.hb";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -10.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h1 = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.h1";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h2 = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.h2";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -100.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h3_high = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.h3_high";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -400.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h3_low = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.h3_low";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -1000.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    h4 = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.h4";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -15849.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    alpha_h1 = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.alpha_h1";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    soilthickness = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.soilthickness";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 2000.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    infiltcappath =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.infiltcappath";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 10.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    infiltcapsoil =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.infiltcapsoil";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 100.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+    maxleakage =
+        ncread(
+            nc,
+            config,
+            "vertical.soil.parameters.maxleakage";
+            sel = inds,
+            defaults = 0.0,
+            type = Float,
+        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
+
+    c = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.c";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 10.0,
+        type = Float,
+        dimname = :layer,
+    )
+    if size(c, 1) != maxlayers
+        parname = param(config.input.vertical, "c")
+        size1 = size(c, 1)
+        error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
+    end
+    kvfrac = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.kvfrac";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 1.0,
+        type = Float,
+        dimname = :layer,
+    )
+    if size(kvfrac, 1) != maxlayers
+        parname = param(config.input, "vertical.soil.parameters.kvfrac")
+        size1 = size(kvfrac, 1)
+        error("$parname needs a layer dimension of size $maxlayers, but is $size1")
+    end
+    # fraction compacted area
+    pathfrac = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.pathfrac";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.01,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+
+    # vegetation parameters
+    rootdistpar = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.rootdistpar";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = -500.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    cap_hmax = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.cap_hmax";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 2000.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    cap_n = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.soil.parameters.cap_n";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 2.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+
+    act_thickl = set_layerthickness.(soilthickness, (cum_depth_layers,), (thicknesslayers,))
+    sumlayers = @. pushfirst(cumsum(act_thickl), 0.0)
+    nlayers = number_of_active_layers.(act_thickl)
+
+    if length(config_thicknesslayers) > 0
+        # root fraction read from nc file, in case of multiple soil layers and TOML file
+        # includes "vertical.rootfraction"
+        if haskey(config.input.vertical.soil.parameters, "rootfraction")
+            rootfraction = ncread(
+                nc,
+                config,
+                "vertical.soil.parameters.rootfraction";
+                sel = inds,
+                optional = false,
+                type = Float,
+                dimname = :layer,
+            )
+        else
+            n = length(inds)
+            (; rootingdepth) = vegetation_parameter_set
+            # default root fraction in case of multiple soil layers
+            rootfraction = zeros(Float, maxlayers, n)
+            for i in 1:n
+                if rootingdepth[i] > 0.0
+                    for k in 1:maxlayers
+                        if (rootingdepth[i] - sumlayers[i][k]) >= act_thickl[i][k]
+                            rootfraction[k, i] = act_thickl[i][k] / rootingdepth[i]
+                        else
+                            rootfraction[k, i] =
+                                max(rootingdepth[i] - sumlayers[i][k], 0.0) /
+                                rootingdepth[i]
+                        end
+                    end
+                end
+            end
+        end
+    else
+        # for the case of 1 soil layer
+        rootfraction = ones(Float, maxlayers, n)
+    end
+
+    kv_profile =
+        sbm_kv_profiles(nc, config, inds, kv_0, f, maxlayers, nlayers, sumlayers, dt)
+
+    soilwatercapacity = @. soilthickness * (theta_s - theta_r)
+
+    n = length(inds)
+    sbm_params = SbmSoilParameters(;
+        maxlayers,
+        nlayers,
+        soilwatercapacity,
+        theta_s,
+        theta_r,
+        kvfrac = svectorscopy(kvfrac, Val{maxlayers}()),
+        hb,
+        h1,
+        h2,
+        h3_high,
+        h3_low,
+        h4,
+        alpha_h1,
+        soilthickness,
+        act_thickl,
+        sumlayers,
+        infiltcappath,
+        infiltcapsoil,
+        maxleakage,
+        pathfrac,
+        rootdistpar,
+        rootfraction = svectorscopy(rootfraction, Val{maxlayers}()),
+        cap_hmax,
+        cap_n,
+        c = svectorscopy(c, Val{maxlayers}()),
+        w_soil,
+        cf_soil,
+        soil_fraction = fill(mv, n),
+        kv_profile,
+        vegetation_parameter_set,
+    )
+    return sbm_params
+end
+
+"SBM soil model"
+@with_kw struct SbmSoilModel{T, N, M, Kv} <: AbstractSoilModel{T}
+    boundary_conditions::SbmSoilBC{T}
+    parameters::SbmSoilParameters{T, N, M, Kv}
+    variables::SbmSoilVariables{T, N}
+end
+
+"Initialize SBM soil model"
+function SbmSoilModel(nc, config, vegetation_parameter_set, inds, dt)
+    n = length(inds)
+    params = SbmSoilParameters(nc, config, vegetation_parameter_set, inds, dt)
+    vars = SbmSoilVariables(n, params)
+    bc = SbmSoilBC(n)
+    model = SbmSoilModel(; boundary_conditions = bc, parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Return soil fraction"
+function soil_fraction!(soil, runoff, glacier)
+    (; canopygapfraction) = soil.parameters.vegetation_parameter_set
+    (; soil_fraction) = soil.parameters
+    (; waterfrac, riverfrac) = runoff.parameters
+    glacier_fraction = get_glacier_fraction(glacier)
+
+    @. soil_fraction =
+        max(canopygapfraction - waterfrac - riverfrac - glacier_fraction, 0.0)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update boundary conditions of the SBM soil model for a single timestep"
+function update_boundary_conditions!(
+    model::SbmSoilModel,
+    atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing,
+    external_models::NamedTuple,
+)
+    (; interception, runoff, demand, allocation) = external_models
+    (; potential_transpiration, water_flux_surface, potential_soilevaporation) =
+        model.boundary_conditions
+
+    potential_transpiration .= get_potential_transpiration(interception)
+
+    @. potential_soilevaporation =
+        model.parameters.soil_fraction * atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation
+    evaporation!(demand.paddy, potential_soilevaporation)
+    potential_soilevaporation .= potential_soilevaporation .- get_evaporation(demand.paddy)
+
+    water_flux_surface .=
+        max.(
+            runoff.boundary_conditions.water_flux_surface .+
+            get_irrigation_allocated(allocation) .- runoff.variables.runoff_river .-
+            runoff.variables.runoff_land .+ get_water_depth(demand.paddy),
+            0.0,
+        )
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update soil temperature of the SBM soil model for a single timestep"
+function soil_temperature!(model::SbmSoilModel, snow::AbstractSnowModel, temperature)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    @. v.tsoil = soil_temperature(v.tsoil, p.w_soil, temperature)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+soil_temperature!(model::SbmSoilModel, snow::NoSnowModel, temperature) = nothing
+
+"Update total available water in the unsaturated zone of the SBM soil model for a single timestep"
+function ustoredepth!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    for i in eachindex(v.ustorelayerdepth)
+        v.ustoredepth[i] = sum(@view v.ustorelayerdepth[i][1:p.nlayers[i]])
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update the infiltration reduction factor of the SBM soil model for a single timestep"
+function infiltration_reduction_factor!(
+    model::SbmSoilModel;
+    modelsnow = false,
+    soilinfreduction = false,
+)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(v.tsoil)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        v.f_infiltration_reduction[i] = infiltration_reduction_factor(
+            v.tsoil[i],
+            p.cf_soil[i];
+            modelsnow = modelsnow,
+            soilinfreduction = soilinfreduction,
+        )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    infiltration!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update the infiltration rate `infiltsoilpath` and infiltration excess water rate
+`infiltexcess` of the SBM soil model for a single timestep.
+"""
+function infiltration!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    (; water_flux_surface) = model.boundary_conditions
+
+    n = length(v.infiltsoilpath)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        v.infiltsoilpath[i], v.infiltexcess[i] = infiltration(
+            water_flux_surface[i],
+            p.pathfrac[i],
+            p.infiltcapsoil[i],
+            p.infiltcappath[i],
+            v.ustorecapacity[i],
+            v.f_infiltration_reduction[i],
+        )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    unsaturated_zone_flow!(model::SbmSoilModel; transfermethod = false)
+
+Update unsaturated storage `ustorelayerdepth` and the `transfer` of water from the
+unsaturated to the saturated store of the SBM soil model for a single timestep, based on the
+original Topog_SBM formulation (`transfermethod = true` and one soil layer) or the
+Brooks-Corey approach (`transfermethod = false` and one or multiple soil layers).
+"""
+function unsaturated_zone_flow!(model::SbmSoilModel; transfermethod = false)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(v.transfer)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 250) do i
+        if v.n_unsatlayers[i] > 0
+            if transfermethod && p.maxlayers == 1
+                # original Topog_SBM formulation
+                ustorelayerdepth = v.ustorelayerdepth[i][1] + v.infiltsoilpath[i]
+                kv_z =
+                    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p.kv_profile, p.kvfrac, v.zi[i], i, 1)
+                ustorelayerdepth, v.transfer[i] = unsatzone_flow_sbm(
+                    ustorelayerdepth,
+                    p.soilwatercapacity[i],
+                    v.satwaterdepth[i],
+                    kv_z,
+                    v.ustorelayerthickness[1],
+                    p.theta_s[i],
+                    p.theta_r[i],
+                )
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i] = setindex(v.ustorelayerdepth[i], ustorelayerdepth, 1)
+            else
+                # Brooks-Corey approach
+                z = cumsum(v.ustorelayerthickness[i])
+                flow_rate = 0.0
+                for m in 1:v.n_unsatlayers[i]
+                    l_sat = v.ustorelayerthickness[i][m] * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i])
+                    kv_z =
+                        hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p.kv_profile, p.kvfrac, z[m], i, m)
+                    ustorelayerdepth = if m == 1
+                        v.ustorelayerdepth[i][m] + v.infiltsoilpath[i]
+                    else
+                        v.ustorelayerdepth[i][m] + flow_rate
+                    end
+                    ustorelayerdepth, flow_rate =
+                        unsatzone_flow_layer(ustorelayerdepth, kv_z, l_sat, p.c[i][m])
+                    v.ustorelayerdepth[i] =
+                        setindex(v.ustorelayerdepth[i], ustorelayerdepth, m)
+                end
+                v.transfer[i] = flow_rate
+            end
+        else
+            v.transfer[i] = 0.0
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    soil_evaporation!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update soil evaporation from the saturated store `soilevapsat` and the total soil
+evaporation from the unsaturated and saturated store `soilevap` of the SBM soil model for a
+single timestep. Also unsaturated storage `ustorelayerdepth` and the saturated store
+`satwaterdepth` are updated.
+"""
+function soil_evaporation!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    (; potential_soilevaporation) = model.boundary_conditions
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(potential_soilevaporation)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        potsoilevap = potential_soilevaporation[i]
+        # First calculate the evaporation of unsaturated storage into the
+        # atmosphere from the upper layer.
+        if p.maxlayers == 1
+            saturationdeficit = p.soilwatercapacity[i] - v.satwaterdepth[i]
+            soilevapunsat =
+                potsoilevap * min(1.0, saturationdeficit / p.soilwatercapacity[i])
+        else
+            soilevapunsat = soil_evaporation_unsatured_store(
+                potsoilevap,
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i][1],
+                v.ustorelayerthickness[i][1],
+                v.n_unsatlayers[i],
+                v.zi[i],
+                p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i],
+            )
+        end
+        # Ensure that the unsaturated evaporation rate does not exceed the
+        # available unsaturated moisture
+        soilevapunsat = min(soilevapunsat, v.ustorelayerdepth[i][1])
+        # Update the additional atmospheric demand
+        potsoilevap = potsoilevap - soilevapunsat
+        v.ustorelayerdepth[i] =
+            setindex(v.ustorelayerdepth[i], v.ustorelayerdepth[i][1] - soilevapunsat, 1)
+
+        if p.maxlayers == 1
+            soilevapsat = 0.0
+        else
+            soilevapsat = soil_evaporation_satured_store(
+                potsoilevap,
+                v.n_unsatlayers[i],
+                p.act_thickl[i][1],
+                v.zi[i],
+                p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i],
+            )
+        end
+        v.soilevapsat[i] = soilevapsat
+        v.soilevap[i] = soilevapunsat + soilevapsat
+        v.satwaterdepth[i] = v.satwaterdepth[i] - soilevapsat
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    transpiration!(model::SbmSoilModel, dt; ust = false)
+
+Update total `transpiration`, transpiration from the unsaturated store `ae_ustore` and
+saturated store `actevapsat` of the SBM soil model for a single timestep. Also unsaturated
+storage `ustorelayerdepth` and the saturated store `satwaterdepth` are updated.
+"""
+function transpiration!(model::SbmSoilModel, dt; ust = false)
+    (; potential_transpiration) = model.boundary_conditions
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    rootingdepth = get_rootingdepth(model)
+    n = length(rootingdepth)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 250) do i
+        actevapustore = 0.0
+        rootfraction_unsat = 0.0
+        v.h3[i] = feddes_h3(p.h3_high[i], p.h3_low[i], potential_transpiration[i], dt)
+        for k in 1:v.n_unsatlayers[i]
+            vwc = max(
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] / v.ustorelayerthickness[i][k],
+                Float(0.0000001),
+            )
+            head = head_brooks_corey(vwc, p.theta_s[i], p.theta_r[i], p.c[i][k], p.hb[i])
+            alpha = rwu_reduction_feddes(
+                head,
+                p.h1[i],
+                p.h2[i],
+                v.h3[i],
+                p.h4[i],
+                p.alpha_h1[i],
+            )
+
+            if ust
+                availcap = ustorelayerdepth[i][k] * 0.99
+            else
+                availcap = min(
+                    1.0,
+                    max(
+                        0.0,
+                        (rootingdepth[i] - p.sumlayers[i][k]) /
+                        v.ustorelayerthickness[i][k],
+                    ),
+                )
+            end
+            maxextr = v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] * availcap
+            # the rootfraction is valid for the root length in a soil layer, if zi decreases the root length
+            # the rootfraction needs to be adapted
+            if k == v.n_unsatlayers[i] && v.zi[i] < rootingdepth[i]
+                rootlength = min(p.act_thickl[i][k], rootingdepth[i] - p.sumlayers[i][k])
+                rootfraction_act =
+                    p.rootfraction[i][k] * (v.ustorelayerthickness[i][k] / rootlength)
+            else
+                rootfraction_act = p.rootfraction[i][k]
+            end
+            actevapustore_layer =
+                min(alpha * rootfraction_act * potential_transpiration[i], maxextr)
+            rootfraction_unsat = rootfraction_unsat + rootfraction_act
+            ustorelayerdepth = v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] - actevapustore_layer
+            actevapustore = actevapustore + actevapustore_layer
+            v.ustorelayerdepth[i] = setindex(v.ustorelayerdepth[i], ustorelayerdepth, k)
+        end
+
+        # transpiration from saturated store
+        wetroots = scurve(v.zi[i], rootingdepth[i], Float(1.0), p.rootdistpar[i])
+        alpha = rwu_reduction_feddes(
+            Float(0.0),
+            p.h1[i],
+            p.h2[i],
+            v.h3[i],
+            p.h4[i],
+            p.alpha_h1[i],
+        )
+        # include remaining root fraction if rooting depth is below water table zi
+        if v.zi[i] >= rootingdepth[i]
+            f_roots = wetroots
+            restevap = potential_transpiration[i] - actevapustore
+        else
+            f_roots = wetroots * (1.0 - rootfraction_unsat)
+            restevap = potential_transpiration[i]
+        end
+        actevapsat = min(restevap * f_roots * alpha, v.satwaterdepth[i])
+
+        v.ae_ustore[i] = actevapustore
+        v.actevapsat[i] = actevapsat
+        v.satwaterdepth[i] = v.satwaterdepth[i] - actevapsat
+        v.transpiration[i] = actevapustore + actevapsat
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    actual_infiltration!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update the actual infiltration rate `actinfilt` of the SBM soil model for a single timestep.
+
+A soil water balance check is performed. Unsaturated storage that exceeds the maximum
+storage per unsaturated soil layer is transferred to the layer above (or surface), from the
+bottom to the top unsaturated soil layer. The resulting excess water `ustoredepth_excess` is
+subtracted from the infiltration rate `infiltsoilpath`.
+"""
+function actual_infiltration!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(v.actinfilt)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        # check soil moisture balance per layer
+        ustoredepth_excess = 0.0
+        for k in v.n_unsatlayers[i]:-1:1
+            ustoredepth_excess = max(
+                0.0,
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] -
+                v.ustorelayerthickness[i][k] * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i]),
+            )
+            v.ustorelayerdepth[i] = setindex(
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i],
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] - ustoredepth_excess,
+                k,
+            )
+            if k > 1
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i] = setindex(
+                    v.ustorelayerdepth[i],
+                    v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k - 1] + ustoredepth_excess,
+                    k - 1,
+                )
+            end
+        end
+
+        v.actinfilt[i] = v.infiltsoilpath[i] - ustoredepth_excess
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    actual_infiltration_soil_path!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update the actual infiltration rate for soil `actinfiltsoil` and paved area `actinfiltpath`
+of the SBM soil model for a single timestep.
+"""
+function actual_infiltration_soil_path!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    (; water_flux_surface) = model.boundary_conditions
+
+    n = length(water_flux_surface)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        v.actinfiltsoil[i], v.actinfiltpath[i] = actual_infiltration_soil_path(
+            water_flux_surface[i],
+            v.actinfilt[i],
+            p.pathfrac[i],
+            p.infiltcapsoil[i],
+            p.infiltcappath[i],
+            v.f_infiltration_reduction[i],
+        )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    capillary_flux!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update the capillary flux `actcapflux` of the SBM soil model for a single timestep.
+"""
+function capillary_flux!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    rootingdepth = get_rootingdepth(model)
+
+    n = length(rootingdepth)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        if v.n_unsatlayers[i] > 0
+            ksat = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
+                p.kv_profile,
+                p.kvfrac,
+                v.zi[i],
+                i,
+                v.n_unsatlayers[i],
+            )
+            maxcapflux =
+                max(0.0, min(ksat, v.ae_ustore[i], v.ustorecapacity[i], v.satwaterdepth[i]))
+
+            if v.zi[i] > rootingdepth[i]
+                capflux =
+                    maxcapflux *
+                    pow(1.0 - min(v.zi[i], p.cap_hmax[i]) / (p.cap_hmax[i]), p.cap_n[i])
+            else
+                capflux = 0.0
+            end
+
+            netcapflux = capflux
+            actcapflux = 0.0
+            for k in v.n_unsatlayers[i]:-1:1
+                toadd = min(
+                    netcapflux,
+                    max(
+                        v.ustorelayerthickness[i][k] * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i]) -
+                        v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k],
+                        0.0,
+                    ),
+                )
+                v.ustorelayerdepth[i] =
+                    setindex(v.ustorelayerdepth[i], v.ustorelayerdepth[i][k] + toadd, k)
+                netcapflux = netcapflux - toadd
+                actcapflux = actcapflux + toadd
+            end
+            v.actcapflux[i] = actcapflux
+        else
+            v.actcapflux[i] = 0.0
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    leakage!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+
+Update the actual leakage rate `actleakage` of the SBM soil model for a single timestep.
+"""
+function leakage!(model::SbmSoilModel)
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    n = length(v.actleakage)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        deepksat = hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
+            p.kv_profile,
+            p.kvfrac,
+            p.soilthickness[i],
+            i,
+            p.nlayers[i],
+        )
+        deeptransfer = min(v.satwaterdepth[i], deepksat)
+        v.actleakage[i] = max(0.0, min(p.maxleakage[i], deeptransfer))
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    update!(
+        model::SbmSoilModel,
+        atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing,
+        external_models::NamedTuple,
+        config,
+        dt,
+    )
+
+Update the SBM soil model (infiltration, unsaturated zone flow, soil evaporation and
+transpiration, capillary flux and leakage) for a single timestep.
+"""
+function update!(
+    model::SbmSoilModel,
+    atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing,
+    external_models::NamedTuple,
+    config,
+    dt,
+)
+    soilinfreduction = get(config.model, "soilinfreduction", false)::Bool
+    modelsnow = get(config.model, "snow", false)::Bool
+    transfermethod = get(config.model, "transfermethod", false)::Bool
+    ust = get(config.model, "whole_ust_available", false)::Bool # should be removed from optional setting and code?
+
+    (; snow, runoff, demand) = external_models
+    (; temperature) = atmospheric_forcing
+    (; water_flux_surface) = model.boundary_conditions
+    v = model.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+
+    ustoredepth!(model)
+    @. v.ustorecapacity = p.soilwatercapacity - v.satwaterdepth - v.ustoredepth
+    @. v.ustorelayerthickness = set_layerthickness(v.zi, p.sumlayers, p.act_thickl)
+    @. v.n_unsatlayers = number_of_active_layers(v.ustorelayerthickness)
+
+    # infiltration
+    soil_temperature!(model, snow, temperature)
+    infiltration_reduction_factor!(
+        model;
+        modelsnow = modelsnow,
+        soilinfreduction = soilinfreduction,
+    )
+    infiltration!(model)
+    # unsaturated zone flow
+    unsaturated_zone_flow!(model; transfermethod = transfermethod)
+    # soil evaporation and transpiration
+    soil_evaporation!(model)
+    transpiration!(model, dt; ust = ust)
+    # actual infiltration and excess water
+    actual_infiltration!(model)
+    @. v.excesswater = water_flux_surface - v.actinfilt - v.infiltexcess
+    actual_infiltration_soil_path!(model)
+    @. v.excesswatersoil =
+        max(water_flux_surface * (1.0 - p.pathfrac) - v.actinfiltsoil, 0.0)
+    @. v.excesswaterpath = max(water_flux_surface * p.pathfrac - v.actinfiltpath, 0.0)
+    # recompute the unsaturated store and ustorecapacity (for capillary flux)
+    ustoredepth!(model)
+    @. v.ustorecapacity = p.soilwatercapacity - v.satwaterdepth - v.ustoredepth
+    # capillary flux and leakage
+    capillary_flux!(model)
+    leakage!(model)
+    # recharge rate to the saturated store
+    @. v.recharge =
+        (v.transfer - v.actcapflux - v.actleakage - v.actevapsat - v.soilevapsat)
+    # total actual evapotranspiration
+    v.actevap .=
+        v.soilevap .+ v.transpiration .+ runoff.variables.ae_openw_r .+
+        runoff.variables.ae_openw_l .+ get_evaporation(demand.paddy)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    update!(model::SbmSoilModel, external_models::NamedTuple)
+
+Update the SBM soil model for a single timestep based on the update of a subsurface flow
+model, resulting in a change in water table depth and an exfiltration rate `exfiltwater`.
+
+The water table depth `zi`, unsaturated storage `ustorelayerdepth`, water exfiltrating from
+the unsaturated store `exfiltustore`, land `runoff` and `net_runoff`, the saturated store
+`satwaterdepth` and the water exfiltrating during saturation excess conditions
+`exfiltsatwater` are updated. Addionally, volumetric water content per soil layer and for
+the root zone are updated.
+"""
+function update!(model::SbmSoilModel, external_models::NamedTuple)
+    (; runoff, demand, subsurface) = external_models
+    (; runoff_land, ae_openw_l) = runoff.variables
+    p = model.parameters
+    v = model.variables
+
+    zi = get_water_depth(subsurface) * 1000.0
+    exfiltsatwater = get_exfiltwater(subsurface) * 1000.0
+    rootingdepth = get_rootingdepth(model)
+
+    n = length(model.variables.zi)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        ustorelayerthickness = set_layerthickness(zi[i], p.sumlayers[i], p.act_thickl[i])
+        n_unsatlayers = number_of_active_layers(ustorelayerthickness)
+        # exfiltration from ustore
+        ustorelayerdepth = v.ustorelayerdepth[i]
+        exfiltustore = 0.0
+        for k in v.n_unsatlayers[i]:-1:1
+            if k <= n_unsatlayers
+                exfiltustore = max(
+                    0,
+                    ustorelayerdepth[k] -
+                    ustorelayerthickness[k] * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i]),
+                )
+            else
+                exfiltustore = ustorelayerdepth[k]
+            end
+            ustorelayerdepth =
+                setindex(ustorelayerdepth, ustorelayerdepth[k] - exfiltustore, k)
+            if k > 1
+                ustorelayerdepth = setindex(
+                    ustorelayerdepth,
+                    ustorelayerdepth[k - 1] + exfiltustore,
+                    k - 1,
+                )
+            end
+        end
+
+        ustoredepth = sum(@view ustorelayerdepth[1:n_unsatlayers])
+        sbm_runoff =
+            exfiltustore +
+            exfiltsatwater[i] +
+            v.excesswater[i] +
+            runoff_land[i] +
+            v.infiltexcess[i]
+
+        # volumetric water content per soil layer and root zone
+        vwc = v.vwc[i]
+        vwc_perc = v.vwc_perc[i]
+        for k in 1:p.nlayers[i]
+            if k <= n_unsatlayers
+                vwc = setindex(
+                    vwc,
+                    (
+                        ustorelayerdepth[k] +
+                        (p.act_thickl[i][k] - ustorelayerthickness[k]) *
+                        (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i])
+                    ) / p.act_thickl[i][k] + p.theta_r[i],
+                    k,
+                )
+            else
+                vwc = setindex(vwc, p.theta_s[i], k)
+            end
+            vwc_perc = setindex(vwc_perc, (vwc[k] / p.theta_s[i]) * 100.0, k)
+        end
+
+        rootstore_unsat = 0
+        for k in 1:n_unsatlayers
+            rootstore_unsat =
+                rootstore_unsat +
+                min(
+                    1.0,
+                    (
+                        max(0.0, rootingdepth[i] - p.sumlayers[i][k]) /
+                        ustorelayerthickness[k]
+                    ),
+                ) * ustorelayerdepth[k]
+        end
+
+        rootstore_sat = max(0.0, rootingdepth[i] - zi[i]) * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i])
+        rootstore = rootstore_sat + rootstore_unsat
+        vwc_root = rootstore / rootingdepth[i] + p.theta_r[i]
+        vwc_percroot = (vwc_root / p.theta_s[i]) * 100.0
+
+        satwaterdepth = (p.soilthickness[i] - zi[i]) * (p.theta_s[i] - p.theta_r[i])
+
+        # update the outputs and states
+        v.n_unsatlayers[i] = n_unsatlayers
+        v.ustorelayerdepth[i] = ustorelayerdepth
+        v.ustoredepth[i] = ustoredepth
+        v.satwaterdepth[i] = satwaterdepth
+        v.exfiltsatwater[i] = exfiltsatwater[i]
+        v.exfiltustore[i] = exfiltustore
+        v.runoff[i] = sbm_runoff
+        v.vwc[i] = vwc
+        v.vwc_perc[i] = vwc_perc
+        v.rootstore[i] = rootstore
+        v.vwc_root[i] = vwc_root
+        v.vwc_percroot[i] = vwc_percroot
+        v.zi[i] = zi[i]
+    end
+    # update runoff and net_runoff (the runoff rate depends on the presence of paddy fields
+    # and the h_max parameter of a paddy field)
+    update_runoff!(demand.paddy, v.runoff)
+    @. v.net_runoff = v.runoff - ae_openw_l
+    return nothing
+end
+
+# wrapper method
+get_rootingdepth(model::SbmSoilModel) =
+    model.parameters.vegetation_parameter_set.rootingdepth
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/soil/soil_process.jl b/src/soil/soil_process.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..845e235c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/soil/soil_process.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
+"""
+    infiltration(
+        potential_infiltration,
+        pathfrac,
+        infiltcapsoil,
+        infiltcappath,
+        ustorecapacity,
+        f_infiltration_reduction,
+    )
+
+Soil infiltration based on infiltration capacity soil `infiltcapsoil`, infiltration capacity
+paved area `infiltcappath` and unsaturated store capacity `ustorecapacity`. The infiltration
+capacity of the soil and paved area can be reduced with the infiltration reduction factor
+`f_infiltration_reduction`.
+"""
+function infiltration(
+    potential_infiltration,
+    pathfrac,
+    infiltcapsoil,
+    infiltcappath,
+    ustorecapacity,
+    f_infiltration_reduction,
+)
+    # First determine if the soil infiltration capacity can deal with the amount of water
+    # split between infiltration in undisturbed soil and paved areas (path).
+    soilinf = potential_infiltration * (1.0 - pathfrac)
+    pathinf = potential_infiltration * pathfrac
+
+    max_infiltsoil = min(infiltcapsoil * f_infiltration_reduction, soilinf)
+    max_infiltpath = min(infiltcappath * f_infiltration_reduction, pathinf)
+    infiltsoilpath = min(max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil, max(0.0, ustorecapacity))
+
+    infiltexcess = (soilinf - max_infiltsoil) + (pathinf - max_infiltpath)
+
+    return infiltsoilpath, infiltexcess
+end
+
+"""
+    unsatzone_flow_layer(usd, kv_z, l_sat, c)
+
+Assuming a unit head gradient, the transfer of water from an unsaturated store layer `usd`
+is controlled by the vertical saturated hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` (bottom layer or water
+table), the effective saturation degree of the layer (ratio `usd` and `l_sat`), and a
+Brooks-Corey power coefficient `c`.
+"""
+function unsatzone_flow_layer(usd, kv_z, l_sat, c)
+    if usd <= 0.0
+        return 0.0, 0.0
+    end
+    sum_ast = 0.0
+    # first transfer soil water > maximum soil water capacity layer (iteration is not
+    # required because of steady theta (usd))
+    st = kv_z * min(pow(usd / l_sat, c), 1.0)
+    st_sat = max(0.0, usd - l_sat)
+    usd -= min(st, st_sat)
+    sum_ast = sum_ast + min(st, st_sat)
+    ast = max(min(st - min(st, st_sat), usd), 0.0)
+    # number of iterations (to reduce "overshooting") based on fixed maximum change in soil
+    # water per iteration step (0.2 mm / model timestep)
+    its = Int(cld(ast, 0.2))
+    for _ in 1:its
+        st = (kv_z / its) * min(pow(usd / l_sat, c), 1.0)
+        ast = min(st, usd)
+        usd -= ast
+        sum_ast += ast
+    end
+
+    return usd, sum_ast
+end
+
+"""
+    unsatzone_flow_sbm(
+        ustorelayerdepth,
+        soilwatercapacity,
+        satwaterdepth,
+        kv_z,
+        usl,
+        theta_s,
+        theta_r,
+    )
+
+The transfer of water from the unsaturated store `ustorelayerdepth` to the saturated store
+`satwaterdepth` is controlled by the vertical saturated hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` at the
+water table and the ratio between `ustorelayerdepth` and the saturation deficit
+(`soilwatercapacity` minus `satwaterdepth`). This is the original Topog_SBM vertical
+transfer formulation.
+
+"""
+function unsatzone_flow_sbm(
+    ustorelayerdepth,
+    soilwatercapacity,
+    satwaterdepth,
+    kv_z,
+    usl,
+    theta_s,
+    theta_r,
+)
+    sd = soilwatercapacity - satwaterdepth
+    if sd <= 0.00001
+        ast = 0.0
+    else
+        st = kv_z * min(ustorelayerdepth, usl * (theta_s - theta_r)) / sd
+        ast = min(st, ustorelayerdepth)
+        ustorelayerdepth = ustorelayerdepth - ast
+    end
+
+    return ustorelayerdepth, ast
+end
+
+"""
+    vwc_brooks_corey(h, hb, theta_s, theta_r, c)
+
+Return volumetric water content based on the Brooks-Corey soil hydraulic model.
+"""
+function vwc_brooks_corey(h, hb, theta_s, theta_r, c)
+    if h < hb
+        par_lambda = 2.0 / (c - 3.0)
+        vwc = (theta_s - theta_r) * pow(hb / h, par_lambda) + theta_r
+    else
+        vwc = theta_s
+    end
+    return vwc
+end
+
+"""
+    head_brooks_corey(vwc, theta_s, theta_r, c, hb)
+
+Return soil water pressure head based on the Brooks-Corey soil hydraulic model.
+"""
+function head_brooks_corey(vwc, theta_s, theta_r, c, hb)
+    par_lambda = 2.0 / (c - 3.0)
+    # Note that in the original formula, theta_r is extracted from vwc, but theta_r is not
+    # part of the numerical vwc calculation
+    h = hb / (pow(((vwc) / (theta_s - theta_r)), (1.0 / par_lambda)))
+    h = min(h, hb)
+    return h
+end
+
+"""
+    feddes_h3(h3_high, h3_low, tpot, Δt)
+
+Return soil water pressure head `h3` of Feddes root water uptake reduction function.
+"""
+function feddes_h3(h3_high, h3_low, tpot, Δt)
+    # value of h3 is a function of potential transpiration [mm/d]
+    tpot_daily = tpot * (tosecond(basetimestep) / Δt)
+    if (tpot_daily >= 0.0) && (tpot_daily <= 1.0)
+        h3 = h3_low
+    elseif (tpot_daily > 1.0) && (tpot_daily < 5.0)
+        h3 = h3_high + ((h3_low - h3_high) * (5.0 - tpot_daily)) / (5.0 - 1.0)
+    else
+        h3 = h3_high
+    end
+    return h3
+end
+
+"""
+    rwu_reduction_feddes(h, h1, h2, h3, h4, alpha_h1)
+
+Root water uptake reduction factor based on Feddes.
+"""
+function rwu_reduction_feddes(h, h1, h2, h3, h4, alpha_h1)
+    # root water uptake reduction coefficient alpha (see also Feddes et al., 1978)
+    if alpha_h1 == 0.0
+        if (h <= h4) || (h > h1)
+            alpha = 0.0
+        elseif (h > h2) && (h <= h1)
+            alpha = (h - h1) / (h2 - h1)
+        elseif (h >= h3) && (h <= h2)
+            alpha = 1.0
+        elseif (h >= h4) && (h < h3)
+            alpha = (h - h4) / (h3 - h4)
+        end
+    else
+        if h <= h4
+            alpha = 0.0
+        elseif h >= h3
+            alpha = 1.0
+        elseif (h >= h4) && (h < h3)
+            alpha = (h - h4) / (h3 - h4)
+        end
+    end
+    return alpha
+end
+
+"""
+    soil_temperature(tsoil, w_soil, temperature))
+
+Return the near surface soil temperature `tsoil` based on the near surface soil temperature
+`tsoil_prev` at the previous timestep, and the difference between air `temperature` and near
+surface soil temperature `tsoil_prev` at the previous timestep, weighted with the weighting
+coefficient `w_soil` (Wigmosta et al., 2009).
+"""
+function soil_temperature(tsoil_prev, w_soil, temperature)
+    tsoil = tsoil_prev + w_soil * (temperature - tsoil_prev)
+    return tsoil
+end
+
+"""
+    infiltration_reduction_factor(
+        tsoil,
+        cf_soil;
+        modelsnow = false,
+        soilinfreduction = false,
+    )
+
+When both `modelsnow` and `soilinfreduction` are `true` an infiltration reduction factor
+`f_infiltration_reduction` is computed. The infiltration reduction factor is based on the
+near surface soil temperature `tsoil`, parameter `cf_soil` and a s-curve to make a smooth
+transition of `f_infiltration_reduction` as a function of `tsoil` and `cf_soil`. Otherwise,
+`f_infiltration_reduction` is set to 1.0.
+"""
+function infiltration_reduction_factor(
+    tsoil,
+    cf_soil;
+    modelsnow = false,
+    soilinfreduction = false,
+)
+    if modelsnow && soilinfreduction
+        bb = 1.0 / (1.0 - cf_soil)
+        f_infiltration_reduction = scurve(tsoil, Float(0.0), bb, Float(8.0)) + cf_soil
+    else
+        f_infiltration_reduction = 1.0
+    end
+    return f_infiltration_reduction
+end
+
+"Return soil evaporation from the unsaturated store"
+function soil_evaporation_unsatured_store(
+    potential_soilevaporation,
+    ustorelayerdepth,
+    ustorelayerthickness,
+    n_unsatlayers,
+    zi,
+    theta_effective,
+)
+    if n_unsatlayers == 0
+        soilevapunsat = 0.0
+    elseif n_unsatlayers == 1
+        # Check if groundwater level lies below the surface
+        soilevapunsat =
+            potential_soilevaporation * min(1.0, ustorelayerdepth / (zi * theta_effective))
+    else
+        # In case first layer contains no saturated storage
+        soilevapunsat =
+            potential_soilevaporation *
+            min(1.0, ustorelayerdepth / (ustorelayerthickness * (theta_effective)))
+    end
+    return soilevapunsat
+end
+
+"Return soil evaporation from the saturated store"
+function soil_evaporation_satured_store(
+    potential_soilevaporation,
+    n_unsatlayers,
+    layerthickness,
+    zi,
+    theta_effective,
+)
+    if n_unsatlayers == 0 || n_unsatlayers == 1
+        soilevapsat =
+            potential_soilevaporation * min(1.0, (layerthickness - zi) / layerthickness)
+        soilevapsat = min(soilevapsat, (layerthickness - zi) * theta_effective)
+    else
+        soilevapsat = 0.0
+    end
+    return soilevapsat
+end
+
+"Return actual infiltration rate for soil `actinfiltsoil` and paved area `actinfiltpath`"
+function actual_infiltration_soil_path(
+    potential_infiltration,
+    actinfilt,
+    pathfrac,
+    infiltcapsoil,
+    infiltcappath,
+    f_infiltration_reduction,
+)
+    soilinf = potential_infiltration * (1.0 - pathfrac)
+    pathinf = potential_infiltration * pathfrac
+    if actinfilt > 0.0
+        max_infiltsoil = min(infiltcapsoil * f_infiltration_reduction, soilinf)
+        max_infiltpath = min(infiltcappath * f_infiltration_reduction, pathinf)
+
+        actinfiltsoil = actinfilt * max_infiltsoil / (max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil)
+        actinfiltpath = actinfilt * max_infiltpath / (max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil)
+
+    else
+        actinfiltsoil = 0.0
+        actinfiltpath = 0.0
+    end
+
+    return actinfiltsoil, actinfiltpath
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/states.jl b/src/states.jl
index d33427886..4cd991654 100644
--- a/src/states.jl
+++ b/src/states.jl
@@ -1,60 +1,73 @@
 """
-    get_vertical_states(model_type; snow = false, glacier = false)
+    get_snow_states(model_type::AbstractString)
 
-Function to extract all required vertical states, given a certain model type. Passes the snow
-and glacier options only for the `sbm` model_type. Returns a tuple with the required states
-(internal names as symbols)
+Extract required snow model states, given a certain `model_type`. Returns a tuple with the
+required states (internal names as symbols).
 """
-function get_vertical_states(model_type::AbstractString; snow = false, glacier = false)
+function get_snow_states(model_type::AbstractString)
     if model_type == "sbm" || model_type == "sbm_gwf"
-        if snow && glacier
-            vertical_states = (
-                :satwaterdepth,
-                :snow,
-                :tsoil,
-                :ustorelayerdepth,
-                :snowwater,
-                :canopystorage,
-                :glacierstore,
-            )
-        elseif snow
-            vertical_states = (
-                :satwaterdepth,
-                :snow,
-                :tsoil,
-                :ustorelayerdepth,
-                :snowwater,
-                :canopystorage,
-            )
+        states = (:snow_storage, :snow_water)
+    elseif model_type == "sediment"
+        states = ()
+    else
+        throw(ArgumentError("Unknown model_type provided (`$model_type`)"))
+    end
+    return states
+end
+
+"""
+    get_glacier_states(model_type::AbstractString)
+
+Extract required glacier model states, given a certain `model_type`. Returns a tuple with
+the required states (internal names as symbols).
+"""
+function get_glacier_states(model_type::AbstractString)
+    if model_type == "sbm" || model_type == "sbm_gwf"
+        states = (:glacier_store,)
+    elseif model_type == "sediment"
+        states = ()
+    else
+        throw(ArgumentError("Unknown model_type provided (`$model_type`)"))
+    end
+    return states
+end
+
+"""
+    get_interception_states(model_type::AbstractString)
+
+Extract required interception model states, given a certain `model_type`. Returns a tuple
+with the required states (internal names as symbols).
+"""
+function get_interception_states(model_type::AbstractString)
+    if model_type == "sbm" || model_type == "sbm_gwf"
+        states = (:canopy_storage,)
+    elseif model_type == "sediment"
+        states = ()
+    else
+        throw(ArgumentError("Unknown model_type provided (`$model_type`)"))
+    end
+    return states
+end
+
+"""
+    get_soil_states(model_type::AbstractString; snow = false)
+
+Extract required soil model states, given a certain `model_type` and whether `snow` is
+modelled. Returns a tuple with the required states (internal names as symbols).
+"""
+function get_soil_states(model_type::AbstractString; snow = false)
+    if model_type == "sbm" || model_type == "sbm_gwf"
+        if snow
+            states = (:satwaterdepth, :tsoil, :ustorelayerdepth)
         else
-            vertical_states = (:satwaterdepth, :ustorelayerdepth, :canopystorage)
+            states = (:satwaterdepth, :ustorelayerdepth)
         end
-    elseif model_type == "hbv"
-        vertical_states = (
-            :soilmoisture,
-            :snow,
-            :snowwater,
-            :upperzonestorage,
-            :lowerzonestorage,
-            :interceptionstorage,
-        )
-    elseif model_type == "flextopo"
-        vertical_states = (
-            :snow,
-            :snowwater,
-            :interceptionstorage,
-            :hortonpondingstorage,
-            :hortonrunoffstorage,
-            :rootzonestorage,
-            :faststorage,
-            :slowstorage,
-        )
     elseif model_type == "sediment"
-        vertical_states = ()
+        states = ()
     else
         throw(ArgumentError("Unknown model_type provided (`$model_type`)"))
     end
-    return vertical_states
+    return states
 end
 
 """
@@ -76,8 +89,9 @@ function add_to_required_states(required_states::Tuple, key_entry::Tuple, states
     return required_states
 end
 
-add_to_required_states(required_states::Tuple, key_entry::Tuple, states::Nothing) =
-    required_states
+function add_to_required_states(required_states::Tuple, key_entry::Tuple, states::Nothing)
+    return required_states
+end
 
 """
     extract_required_states(config::Config)
@@ -100,10 +114,21 @@ function extract_required_states(config::Config)
     do_paddy = false
     if haskey(config.model, "water_demand")
         do_paddy = get(config.model.water_demand, "paddy", false)::Bool
-    end 
+    end
 
     # Extract required stated based on model configuration file
-    vertical_states = get_vertical_states(model_type; snow = do_snow, glacier = do_glaciers)
+    if do_snow
+        snow_states = get_snow_states(model_type)
+    else
+        snow_states = ()
+    end
+    if do_snow && do_glaciers
+        glacier_states = get_glacier_states(model_type)
+    else
+        glacier_states = ()
+    end
+    interception_states = get_interception_states(model_type)
+    soil_states = get_soil_states(model_type; snow = do_snow)
 
     # Subsurface states
     if model_type == "sbm_gwf"
@@ -175,8 +200,21 @@ function extract_required_states(config::Config)
     # Build required states in a tuple, similar to the keys in the output of
     # `ncnames(config.state)`
     required_states = ()
-    # Add vertical states to dict
-    required_states = add_to_required_states(required_states, (:vertical,), vertical_states)
+    # Add snow, glacier, interception and sbm soil states to dict
+    required_states =
+        add_to_required_states(required_states, (:vertical, :snow, :variables), snow_states)
+    required_states = add_to_required_states(
+        required_states,
+        (:vertical, :glacier, :variables),
+        glacier_states,
+    )
+    required_states = add_to_required_states(
+        required_states,
+        (:vertical, :interception, :variables),
+        interception_states,
+    )
+    required_states =
+        add_to_required_states(required_states, (:vertical, :soil, :variables), soil_states)
     # Add subsurface states to dict
     if model_type == "sbm_gwf"
         key_entry = (:lateral, :subsurface, :flow, :aquifer)
@@ -208,7 +246,7 @@ function extract_required_states(config::Config)
     # Add paddy states to dict
     required_states = add_to_required_states(
         required_states,
-        (:vertical, :paddy),
+        (:vertical, :demand, :paddy, :variables),
         paddy_states,
     )
     return required_states
diff --git a/src/subdomains.jl b/src/subdomains.jl
index 7428a1856..8317c9616 100644
--- a/src/subdomains.jl
+++ b/src/subdomains.jl
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ subbasins without upstream neighbor and distance < `max_dist`) to distance 0 (`o
 function subbasins_order(g, outlet, max_dist)
     order = Vector{Vector{Int}}(undef, max_dist + 1)
     order[1] = [outlet]
-    for i = 1:max_dist
+    for i in 1:max_dist
         v = Vector{Int}()
         for n in order[i]
             ups_nodes = inneighbors(g, n)
@@ -90,14 +90,14 @@ function subbasins_order(g, outlet, max_dist)
                 append!(v, ups_nodes)
             end
         end
-        order[i+1] = v
+        order[i + 1] = v
     end
 
     # move subbasins without upstream neighbor (headwater) to index [max_dist+1]
-    for i = 1:max_dist
+    for i in 1:max_dist
         for s in order[i]
             if isempty(inneighbors(g, s))
-                append!(order[max_dist+1], s)
+                append!(order[max_dist + 1], s)
                 filter!(e -> e ≠ s, order[i])
             end
         end
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ flow network for each subbasin cell.
 function graph_from_nodes(graph, subbas, subbas_fill)
     n = maximum(subbas)
     g = DiGraph(n)
-    for i = 1:n
+    for i in 1:n
         idx = findall(x -> x == i, subbas)
         ds_idx = outneighbors(graph, only(idx))
         to_node = subbas_fill[ds_idx]
@@ -149,7 +149,6 @@ streamorder, toposort, min_sto)`). Subbasins are extracted for each basin outlet
 - `topo_subbas` topological order per subbasin id stored as `Vector{Vector{Int}}`
 """
 function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto)
-
     if nthreads() > 1
         # extract basins (per outlet/pit), assign unique basin id
         n_pits = length(index_pit)
@@ -169,7 +168,7 @@ function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto
         topo_subbas = Vector{Vector{Int}}()
         index = Vector{Int}()
         total_subbas = 0
-        for i = 1:n_pits
+        for i in 1:n_pits
             # extract subbasins per basin, make a graph at the subbasin level, calculate the
             # maximum distance of this graph, and group and order the subbasin ids from
             # upstream to downstream
@@ -179,7 +178,7 @@ function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto
             streamorder_subbas = streamorder[vmap]
             subbas = subbasins(g, streamorder_subbas, toposort_b, min_sto)
             subbas_fill = fillnodata_upstream(g, toposort_b, subbas, 0)
-            n_subbas = max(length(subbas[subbas.>0]), 1)
+            n_subbas = max(length(subbas[subbas .> 0]), 1)
             if n_subbas > 1
                 graph_subbas = graph_from_nodes(g, subbas, subbas_fill)
                 toposort_subbas = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph_subbas)
@@ -194,7 +193,7 @@ function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto
             end
             # subbasins need a unique id (in case of multiple basins/outlets in the
             # kinematic wave domain)
-            for n = 1:length(v_subbas)
+            for n in 1:length(v_subbas)
                 v_subbas[n] .= v_subbas[n] .+ total_subbas
             end
             total_subbas += n_subbas
@@ -204,7 +203,7 @@ function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto
             # (subgraph of the corresponding basin graph g), and the indices that match the
             # subbasin topological order
             if n_subbas > 1
-                for s = 1:n_subbas
+                for s in 1:n_subbas
                     subbas_s = findall(x -> x == s, subbas_fill)
                     sg, _ = induced_subgraph(g, subbas_s)
                     toposort_sg = topological_sort_by_dfs(sg)
@@ -219,8 +218,8 @@ function kinwave_set_subdomains(graph, toposort, index_pit, streamorder, min_sto
         # reduce the order of subbasin ids by merging groups of subbasins that have the same
         # index (multiple basins/outlets in the kinematic wave domain)
         subbas_order = Vector{Vector{Int}}(undef, maximum(index))
-        for m = 1:maximum(index)
-            subbas_order[m] = reduce(vcat, order_subbas[index.==m])
+        for m in 1:maximum(index)
+            subbas_order[m] = reduce(vcat, order_subbas[index .== m])
         end
     else
         subbas_order = [[1]]
diff --git a/src/surfacewater/runoff.jl b/src/surfacewater/runoff.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6203b4020
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/surfacewater/runoff.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+abstract type AbstractRunoffModel{T} end
+
+"Struct for storing open water runoff variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct OpenWaterRunoffVariables{T}
+    # Runoff from river based on riverfrac [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    runoff_river::Vector{T}
+    # Net runoff from river [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    net_runoff_river::Vector{T}
+    # Runoff from land based on waterfrac [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    runoff_land::Vector{T}
+    # Actual evaporation from open water (land) [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    ae_openw_l::Vector{T}
+    # Actual evaporation from river [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    ae_openw_r::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize open water runoff model variables"
+function OpenWaterRunoffVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return OpenWaterRunoffVariables{T}(;
+        runoff_river = fill(mv, n),
+        runoff_land = fill(mv, n),
+        ae_openw_l = fill(mv, n),
+        ae_openw_r = fill(mv, n),
+        net_runoff_river = fill(mv, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Struct for storing open water runoff parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct OpenWaterRunoffParameters{T}
+    # Fraction of river [-]
+    riverfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
+    # Fraction of open water (excluding rivers) [-]
+    waterfrac::Vector{T} | "-"
+end
+
+"Initialize open water runoff parameters"
+function OpenWaterRunoffParameters(nc, config, inds, riverfrac)
+    # fraction open water
+    waterfrac = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.runoff.parameters.waterfrac";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.0,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    waterfrac = max.(waterfrac .- riverfrac, Float(0.0))
+    params = OpenWaterRunoffParameters(; waterfrac = waterfrac, riverfrac = riverfrac)
+    return params
+end
+
+"Struct for storing open water runoff boundary conditions"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct OpenWaterRunoffBC{T}
+    water_flux_surface::Vector{T}
+    waterlevel_land::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    waterlevel_river::Vector{T} | "mm"
+end
+
+"Initialize open water runoff boundary conditions"
+function OpenWaterRunoffBC(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return OpenWaterRunoffBC{T}(;
+        water_flux_surface = fill(mv, n),
+        waterlevel_land = fill(mv, n),
+        waterlevel_river = zeros(T, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Open water runoff model"
+@with_kw struct OpenWaterRunoff{T} <: AbstractRunoffModel{T}
+    boundary_conditions::OpenWaterRunoffBC{T}
+    parameters::OpenWaterRunoffParameters{T}
+    variables::OpenWaterRunoffVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize open water runoff model"
+function OpenWaterRunoff(nc, config, inds, riverfrac)
+    n = length(riverfrac)
+    vars = OpenWaterRunoffVariables(Float, n)
+    bc = OpenWaterRunoffBC(Float, n)
+    params = OpenWaterRunoffParameters(nc, config, inds, riverfrac)
+    model =
+        OpenWaterRunoff(; boundary_conditions = bc, parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Return the water flux at the surface (boundary condition) when snow is not modelled"
+function get_water_flux_surface!(
+    water_flux_surface,
+    snow::NoSnowModel,
+    glacier,
+    interception,
+)
+    (; throughfall, stemflow) = interception.variables
+    @. water_flux_surface = throughfall + stemflow
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Return the water flux at the surface (boundary condition) when snow is modelled"
+function get_water_flux_surface!(
+    water_flux_surface,
+    snow::AbstractSnowModel,
+    glacier,
+    interception,
+)
+    water_flux_surface .=
+        get_runoff(snow) .+ get_glacier_melt(glacier) .* get_glacier_fraction(glacier)
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update boundary conditions of the open water runoff model for a single timestep"
+function update_boundary_conditions!(
+    model::OpenWaterRunoff,
+    external_models::NamedTuple,
+    lateral,
+    network,
+)
+    (; water_flux_surface, waterlevel_river, waterlevel_land) = model.boundary_conditions
+    inds_riv = network.index_river
+    (; snow, glacier, interception) = external_models
+
+    get_water_flux_surface!(water_flux_surface, snow, glacier, interception)
+
+    # extract water levels h_av [m] from the land and river domains this is used to limit
+    # open water evaporation
+    waterlevel_land .= lateral.land.h_av .* 1000.0
+    waterlevel_river[inds_riv] .= lateral.river.h_av .* 1000.0
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update the open water runoff model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::OpenWaterRunoff, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    (; potential_evaporation) = atmospheric_forcing
+    (; runoff_river, net_runoff_river, runoff_land, ae_openw_r, ae_openw_l) =
+        model.variables
+    (; riverfrac, waterfrac) = model.parameters
+    (; water_flux_surface, waterlevel_river, waterlevel_land) = model.boundary_conditions
+
+    @. runoff_river = min(1.0, riverfrac) * water_flux_surface
+    @. runoff_land = min(1.0, waterfrac) * water_flux_surface
+    @. ae_openw_r = min(waterlevel_river * riverfrac, riverfrac * potential_evaporation)
+    @. ae_openw_l = min(waterlevel_land * waterfrac, waterfrac * potential_evaporation)
+    @. net_runoff_river = runoff_river - ae_openw_r
+
+    return nothing
+end
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/utils.jl b/src/utils.jl
index b81248c9e..40c514ec1 100644
--- a/src/utils.jl
+++ b/src/utils.jl
@@ -17,6 +17,23 @@ const mv = Float(NaN)
 # timestep that the parameter units are defined in
 const basetimestep = Second(Day(1))
 
+"""
+    scurve(x, a, b, c)
+
+Sigmoid "S"-shaped curve.
+
+# Arguments
+- `x::Real`: input
+- `a::Real`: determines the centre level
+- `b::Real`: determines the amplitude of the curve
+- `c::Real`: determines the steepness or "stepwiseness" of the curve.
+             The higher c the sharper the function. A negative c reverses the function.
+"""
+function scurve(x, a, b, c)
+    s = one(x) / (b + exp(-c * (x - a)))
+    return s
+end
+
 "Set at indices pit values (default = 5) in a gridded local drainage direction vector"
 function set_pit_ldd(pits_2d, ldd, indices; pit = 5)
     pits = pits_2d[indices]
@@ -98,7 +115,7 @@ function cell_lengths(y::AbstractVector, cellength::Real, sizeinmetres::Bool)
         xl .= cellength
         yl .= cellength
     else
-        for i = 1:n
+        for i in 1:n
             longlen, latlen = lattometres(y[i])
             xl[i] = longlen * cellength
             yl[i] = latlen * cellength
@@ -116,7 +133,7 @@ function river_fraction(
 )
     n = length(river)
     riverfrac = fill(mv, n)
-    for i = 1:n
+    for i in 1:n
         riverfrac[i] = if river[i]
             min((riverlength[i] * riverwidth[i]) / (xl[i] * yl[i]), 1.0)
         else
@@ -127,7 +144,7 @@ function river_fraction(
 end
 
 """
-    set_states(instate_path, model, state_ncnames; <keyword arguments>)
+    set_states!(instate_path, model, state_ncnames; <keyword arguments>)
 
 Read states contained in `Dict` `state_ncnames` from netCDF file located in `instate_path`,
 and set states in `model` object. Active cells are selected with the corresponding network's
@@ -136,7 +153,7 @@ and set states in `model` object. Active cells are selected with the correspondi
 # Arguments
 - `type = nothing`: type to convert data to after reading. By default no conversion is done.
 """
-function set_states(instate_path, model; type = nothing, dimname = nothing)
+function set_states!(instate_path, model; type = nothing, dimname = nothing)
     (; network, config) = model
 
     # Check if required states are covered
@@ -154,8 +171,6 @@ function set_states(instate_path, model; type = nothing, dimname = nothing)
             if dims == 4
                 if dimname == :layer
                     dimensions = (x = :, y = :, layer = :, time = 1)
-                elseif dimname == :classes
-                    dimensions = (x = :, y = :, classes = :, time = 1)
                 else
                     error("Unrecognized dimension name $dimname")
                 end
@@ -195,6 +210,7 @@ function set_states(instate_path, model; type = nothing, dimname = nothing)
             end
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -249,8 +265,6 @@ function ncread(
     # first timestep), that is later updated with the `update_cyclic!` function.
     if isnothing(dimname)
         dim_sel = (x = :, y = :, time = 1)
-    elseif dimname == :classes
-        dim_sel = (x = :, y = :, classes = :, time = 1)
     elseif dimname == :layer
         dim_sel = (x = :, y = :, layer = :, time = 1)
     elseif dimname == :flood_depth
@@ -297,7 +311,7 @@ function ncread(
             # provided through the TOML file.
             if length(mod.index) > 1
                 # if index, scale and offset is provided in the TOML as a list.
-                for i = 1:length(mod.index)
+                for i in 1:length(mod.index)
                     A[:, :, mod.index[i]] =
                         A[:, :, mod.index[i]] .* mod.scale[i] .+ mod.offset[i]
                 end
@@ -344,25 +358,27 @@ function ncread(
 end
 
 """
-    set_layerthickness(d::Real, sl::SVector)
+    set_layerthickness(reference_depth::Real, cum_depth::SVector, thickness::SVector)
 
-Calculate actual soil thickness of layers based on a reference depth (e.g. soil depth or water table depth) `d`,
-a SVector `sl` with cumulative soil depth starting at soil surface (0), and a SVector `tl` with actual thickness
-per soil layer.
+Calculate actual soil thickness of layers based on a reference depth (e.g. soil depth or
+water table depth) `reference_depth`, a SVector `cum_depth` with cumulative soil depth starting
+at soil surface (0), and a SVector `thickness` with thickness per soil layer.
 """
-function set_layerthickness(d::Real, sl::SVector, tl::SVector)
-
-    act_d = tl .* mv
-    for i = 1:length(act_d)
-        if d > sl[i+1]
-            act_d = setindex(act_d, tl[i], i)
-        elseif d - sl[i] > 0.0
-            act_d = setindex(act_d, d - sl[i], i)
+function set_layerthickness(reference_depth::Real, cum_depth::SVector, thickness::SVector)
+    thicknesslayers = thickness .* mv
+    for i in 1:length(thicknesslayers)
+        if reference_depth > cum_depth[i + 1]
+            thicknesslayers = setindex(thicknesslayers, thickness[i], i)
+        elseif reference_depth - cum_depth[i] > 0.0
+            thicknesslayers = setindex(thicknesslayers, reference_depth - cum_depth[i], i)
         end
     end
+    return thicknesslayers
+end
 
-    nlayers = length(act_d) - sum(isnan.(act_d))
-    return act_d, nlayers
+function number_of_active_layers(thickness::SVector)
+    nlayers = length(thickness) - sum(isnan.(thickness))
+    return nlayers
 end
 
 """
@@ -439,10 +455,10 @@ function sum_at(f::Function, inds, T)
 end
 
 # https://juliaarrays.github.io/StaticArrays.jl/latest/pages/api/#Arrays-of-static-arrays-1
-function svectorscopy(x::Matrix{T}, ::Val{N}) where {T,N}
+function svectorscopy(x::Matrix{T}, ::Val{N}) where {T, N}
     size(x, 1) == N || error("sizes mismatch")
     isbitstype(T) || error("use for bitstypes only")
-    copy(reinterpret(SVector{N,T}, vec(x)))
+    return copy(reinterpret(SVector{N, T}, vec(x)))
 end
 
 """
@@ -501,8 +517,8 @@ julia> tosecond(Day(1))
 """
 tosecond(x::Hour) = Float64(Dates.value(Second(x)))
 tosecond(x::Minute) = Float64(Dates.value(Second(x)))
-tosecond(x::T) where {T<:DatePeriod} = Float64(Dates.value(Second(x)))
-tosecond(x::T) where {T<:TimePeriod} = x / convert(T, Second(1))
+tosecond(x::T) where {T <: DatePeriod} = Float64(Dates.value(Second(x)))
+tosecond(x::T) where {T <: TimePeriod} = x / convert(T, Second(1))
 
 """
     adjacent_nodes_at_link(graph)
@@ -523,7 +539,7 @@ function adjacent_links_at_node(graph, nodes_at_link)
     nodes = vertices(graph)
     src_link = Vector{Int}[]
     dst_link = copy(src_link)
-    for i = 1:nv(graph)
+    for i in 1:nv(graph)
         push!(src_link, findall(isequal(nodes[i]), nodes_at_link.dst))
         push!(dst_link, findall(isequal(nodes[i]), nodes_at_link.src))
     end
@@ -537,6 +553,7 @@ function add_vertex_edge_graph!(graph, pits)
         add_vertex!(graph)
         add_edge!(graph, v, n + i)
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
@@ -560,7 +577,6 @@ function set_effective_flowwidth!(
     waterbody,
     inds_rev_riv,
 )
-
     toposort = topological_sort_by_dfs(graph_riv)
     n = length(we_x)
     for v in toposort
@@ -610,6 +626,7 @@ function set_effective_flowwidth!(
             we_x[idx] = waterbody[v] ? 0.0 : max(we_x[idx] - 0.5 * w, 0.0)
         end
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 "Return julian day of year (leap days are not counted)"
@@ -622,7 +639,7 @@ end
 "Partition indices with at least size `basesize`"
 function _partition(xs::Integer, basesize::Integer)
     n = Int(max(1, xs ÷ basesize))
-    return (Int(1 + ((i - 1) * xs) ÷ n):Int((i * xs) ÷ n) for i = 1:n)
+    return (Int(1 + ((i - 1) * xs) ÷ n):Int((i * xs) ÷ n) for i in 1:n)
 end
 
 """
@@ -658,174 +675,252 @@ function threaded_foreach(f, x::AbstractArray; basesize::Integer)
 end
 
 """
-    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(sbm::SBM, z, i, ksat_profile)
+    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvExponential, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvExponentialConstant, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvLayered, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvLayeredExponential, kvfrac, z, i, n)
 
-Return vertical hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` for soil layer `n` at depth `z` for vertical
-concept `SBM` (at index `i`) based on hydraulic conductivity profile `ksat_profile`.
+Return vertical hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` at depth `z` for index `i` using muliplication
+factor `kv_frac` at soil layer `n` and vertical hydraulic conductivity profile `p`.
 """
-function hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(sbm::SBM, z, i, n, ksat_profile)
-    if ksat_profile == "exponential"
-        kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv_0[i] * exp(-sbm.f[i] * z)
-    elseif ksat_profile == "exponential_constant"
-        if z < sbm.z_exp[i]
-            kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv_0[i] * exp(-sbm.f[i] * z)
-        else
-            kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv_0[i] * exp(-sbm.f[i] * sbm.z_exp[i])
-        end
-    elseif ksat_profile == "layered"
-        kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv[i][n]
-    elseif ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-        if z < sbm.z_layered[i]
-            kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv[i][n]
-        else
-            n = sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
-            kv_z = sbm.kvfrac[i][n] * sbm.kv[i][n] * exp(-sbm.f[i] * (z - sbm.z_layered[i]))
-        end
+function hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvExponential, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    kv_z = kvfrac[i][n] * p.kv_0[i] * exp(-p.f[i] * z)
+    return kv_z
+end
+
+function hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvExponentialConstant, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    (; kv_0, f) = p.exponential
+    if z < p.z_exp[i]
+        kv_z = kvfrac[i][n] * kv_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * z)
     else
-        error("unknown ksat_profile")
+        kv_z = kvfrac[i][n] * kv_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * p.z_exp[i])
     end
     return kv_z
 end
 
-"""
-    kh_layered_profile(sbm::SBM, khfrac, z, i, ksat_profile)
+function hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvLayered, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    kv_z = kvfrac[i][n] * p.kv[i][n]
+    return kv_z
+end
+
+function hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(p::KvLayeredExponential, kvfrac, z, i, n)
+    return if z < p.z_layered[i]
+        kvfrac[i][n] * p.kv[i][n]
+    else
+        n = p.nlayers_kv[i]
+        kvfrac[i][n] * p.kv[i][n] * exp(-p.f[i] * (z - p.z_layered[i]))
+    end
+end
 
-Return equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity `kh` [m d⁻¹] for a layered soil profile
-of vertical concept `SBM` (at index `i`) based on multiplication factor `khfrac` [-], water
-table depth `z` [mm] and hydraulic conductivity profile `ksat_profile`.
 """
-function kh_layered_profile(sbm::SBM, khfrac, i, ksat_profile)
+    kh_layered_profile!(soil::SbmSoilModel, subsurface::LateralSSF, kv_profile::KvLayered, dt)
+    kh_layered_profile!(soil::SbmSoilModel, subsurface::LateralSSF, kv_profile::KvLayeredExponential, dt)
 
-    m = sbm.nlayers[i]
-    t_factor = (tosecond(basetimestep) / sbm.dt)
-    if (sbm.soilthickness[i] - sbm.zi[i]) > 0.0
-        transmissivity = 0.0
-        sumlayers = @view sbm.sumlayers[i][2:end]
-        n = max(sbm.n_unsatlayers[i], 1)
+Compute equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity `kh` [m d⁻¹] using vertical hydraulic
+conductivity profile `kv_profile`.
+"""
+function kh_layered_profile!(
+    soil::SbmSoilModel,
+    subsurface::LateralSSF,
+    kv_profile::KvLayered,
+    dt,
+)
+    (; nlayers, sumlayers, act_thickl, soilthickness) = soil.parameters
+    (; n_unsatlayers, zi) = soil.variables
+    (; kh) = subsurface.kh_profile
+    (; khfrac) = subsurface
+
+    t_factor = (tosecond(basetimestep) / dt)
+    for i in eachindex(kh)
+        m = nlayers[i]
+
+        if soilthickness[i] > zi[i]
+            transmissivity = 0.0
+            _sumlayers = @view sumlayers[i][2:end]
+            n = max(n_unsatlayers[i], 1)
+            transmissivity += (_sumlayers[n] - zi[i]) * kv_profile.kv[i][n]
+            n += 1
+            while n <= m
+                transmissivity += act_thickl[i][n] * kv_profile.kv[i][n]
+                n += 1
+            end
+            # convert units for kh [m d⁻¹] computation (transmissivity [mm² Δt⁻¹], soilthickness
+            # [mm] and zi [mm])
+            kh[i] =
+                0.001 * (transmissivity / (soilthickness[i] - zi[i])) * t_factor * khfrac[i]
+        else
+            kh[i] = 0.001 * kv_profile.kv[i][m] * t_factor * khfrac[i]
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
 
-        if ksat_profile == "layered"
-            transmissivity += (sumlayers[n] - sbm.zi[i]) * sbm.kv[i][n]
-        elseif ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-            if sbm.zi[i] >= sbm.z_layered[i]
-                zt = sbm.soilthickness[i] - sbm.z_layered[i]
-                j = sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
+function kh_layered_profile!(
+    soil::SbmSoilModel,
+    subsurface::LateralSSF,
+    kv_profile::KvLayeredExponential,
+    dt,
+)
+    (; nlayers, sumlayers, act_thickl, soilthickness) = soil.parameters
+    (; nlayers_kv, z_layered, kv, f) = kv_profile
+    (; n_unsatlayers, zi) = soil.variables
+    (; kh) = subsurface.kh_profile
+    (; khfrac) = subsurface
+    t_factor = (tosecond(basetimestep) / dt)
+
+    for i in eachindex(kh)
+        m = nlayers[i]
+
+        if soilthickness[i] > zi[i]
+            transmissivity = 0.0
+            n = max(n_unsatlayers[i], 1)
+            if zi[i] >= z_layered[i]
+                zt = soilthickness[i] - z_layered[i]
+                j = nlayers_kv[i]
                 transmissivity +=
-                    sbm.kv[i][j] / sbm.f[i] *
-                    (exp(-sbm.f[i] * (sbm.zi[i] - sbm.z_layered[i])) - exp(-sbm.f[i] * zt))
+                    kv[i][j] / f[i] *
+                    (exp(-f[i] * (zi[i] - z_layered[i])) - exp(-f[i] * zt))
                 n = m
             else
-                transmissivity += (sumlayers[n] - sbm.zi[i]) * sbm.kv[i][n]
+                _sumlayers = @view sumlayers[i][2:end]
+                transmissivity += (_sumlayers[n] - zi[i]) * kv[i][n]
             end
-        else
-            error("unknown ksat_profile, `layered` or `layered_exponential` are allowed")
-        end
-        n += 1
-        while n <= m
-            if ksat_profile == "layered"
-                transmissivity += sbm.act_thickl[i][n] * sbm.kv[i][n]
-            elseif ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-                if n > sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
-                    zt = sbm.soilthickness[i] - sbm.z_layered[i]
-                    j = sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
-                    transmissivity += sbm.kv[i][j] / sbm.f[i] * (1.0 - exp(-sbm.f[i] * zt))
+            n += 1
+            while n <= m
+                if n > nlayers_kv[i]
+                    zt = soilthickness[i] - z_layered[i]
+                    j = nlayers_kv[i]
+                    transmissivity += kv[i][j] / f[i] * (1.0 - exp(-f[i] * zt))
                     n = m
                 else
-                    transmissivity += sbm.act_thickl[i][n] * sbm.kv[i][n]
+                    transmissivity += act_thickl[i][n] * kv[i][n]
                 end
+                n += 1
             end
-            n += 1
-        end
-        # convert units for kh [m d⁻¹] computation (transmissivity [mm² Δt⁻¹], soilthickness
-        # [mm] and zi [mm])
-        kh =
-            0.001 *
-            (transmissivity / (sbm.soilthickness[i] - sbm.zi[i])) *
-            t_factor *
-            khfrac
-    else
-        if ksat_profile == "layered"
-            kh = 0.001 * sbm.kv[i][m] * t_factor * khfrac
-        elseif ksat_profile == "layered_exponential"
-            if sbm.zi[i] >= sbm.z_layered[i]
-                j = sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
-                kh =
+            # convert units for kh [m d⁻¹] computation (transmissivity [mm² Δt⁻¹], soilthickness
+            # [mm] and zi [mm])
+            kh[i] =
+                0.001 * (transmissivity / (soilthickness[i] - zi[i])) * t_factor * khfrac[i]
+        else
+            if zi[i] >= z_layered[i]
+                j = nlayers_kv[i]
+                kh[i] =
                     0.001 *
-                    sbm.kv[i][j] *
-                    exp(-sbm.f[i] * (sbm.zi[i] - sbm.z_layered[i])) *
-                    khfrac *
+                    kv[i][j] *
+                    exp(-f[i] * (zi[i] - z_layered[i])) *
+                    khfrac[i] *
                     t_factor
             else
-                kh = 0.001 * sbm.kv[i][m] * t_factor * khfrac
+                kh[i] = 0.001 * kv[i][m] * t_factor * khfrac[i]
             end
-        else
-            error("unknown ksat_profile, `layered` or `layered_exponential` are allowed")
         end
     end
-    return kh
-end
-
-"Initialize lateral subsurface variables `ssf` and `ssfmax` with `ksat_profile` `exponential`"
-function initialize_lateralssf_exp!(ssf::LateralSSF)
-    for i in eachindex(ssf.ssf)
-        ssf.ssfmax[i] =
-            ((ssf.kh_0[i] * ssf.slope[i]) / ssf.f[i]) *
-            (1.0 - exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.soilthickness[i]))
-        ssf.ssf[i] =
-            ((ssf.kh_0[i] * ssf.slope[i]) / ssf.f[i]) *
-            (exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.zi[i]) - exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.soilthickness[i])) *
-            ssf.dw[i]
-    end
+    return nothing
 end
 
-"Initialize lateral subsurface variables `ssf` and `ssfmax` with `ksat_profile` `exponential_constant`"
-function initialize_lateralssf_exp_const!(ssf::LateralSSF)
-    ssf_constant = @. ssf.khfrac *
-       ssf.kh_0 *
-       exp(-ssf.f * ssf.z_exp) *
-       ssf.slope *
-       (ssf.soilthickness - ssf.z_exp)
-    for i in eachindex(ssf.ssf)
-        ssf.ssfmax[i] =
-            ((ssf.khfrac[i] * ssf.kh_0[i] * ssf.slope[i]) / ssf.f[i]) *
-            (1.0 - exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.z_exp[i])) + ssf_constant[i]
-        if ssf.zi[i] < ssf.z_exp[i]
-            ssf.ssf[i] =
+kh_layered_profile!(
+    soil::SbmSoilModel,
+    subsurface::LateralSSF,
+    kv_profile::Union{KvExponential, KvExponentialConstant},
+    dt,
+) = nothing
+
+"""
+    initialize_lateralssf!(model::LateralSSF, kh_profile::KhExponential)
+    initialize_lateralssf!(model::LateralSSF, kh_profile::KhExponentialConstant)
+
+Initialize lateral subsurface variables `ssf` and `ssfmax` using horizontal hydraulic
+conductivity profile `kh_profile`.
+"""
+function initialize_lateralssf!(model::LateralSSF, kh_profile::KhExponential)
+    (; kh_0, f) = kh_profile
+    (; ssf, ssfmax, zi, slope, soilthickness, dw) = model
+
+    @. ssfmax = ((kh_0 * slope) / f) * (1.0 - exp(-f * soilthickness))
+    @. ssf = ((kh_0 * slope) / f) * (exp(-f * zi) - exp(-f * soilthickness)) * dw
+    return nothing
+end
+
+function initialize_lateralssf!(model::LateralSSF, kh_profile::KhExponentialConstant)
+    (; kh_0, f) = kh_profile.exponential
+    (; z_exp) = kh_profile
+    (; ssf, ssfmax, zi, slope, soilthickness, dw) = model
+    ssf_constant = @. kh_0 * exp(-f * z_exp) * slope * (soilthickness - z_exp)
+    for i in eachindex(ssf)
+        ssfmax[i] =
+            ((kh_0[i] * slope[i]) / f[i]) * (1.0 - exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i])) + ssf_constant[i]
+        if zi[i] < z_exp[i]
+            ssf[i] =
                 (
-                    ((ssf.kh_0[i] * ssf.slope[i]) / ssf.f[i]) *
-                    (exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.zi[i]) - exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.z_exp[i])) +
-                    ssf_constant[i]
-                ) * ssf.dw[i]
+                    ((kh_0[i] * slope[i]) / f[i]) *
+                    (exp(-f[i] * zi[i]) - exp(-f[i] * z_exp[i])) + ssf_constant[i]
+                ) * dw[i]
         else
-            ssf.ssf[i] =
-                ssf.kh_0[i] *
-                exp(-ssf.f[i] * ssf.zi[i]) *
-                ssf.slope[i] *
-                (ssf.soilthickness[i] - ssf.zi[i]) *
-                ssf.dw[i]
+            ssf[i] =
+                kh_0[i] * exp(-f[i] * zi[i]) * slope[i] * (soilthickness[i] - zi[i]) * dw[i]
+        end
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"""
+    initialize_lateralssf!(subsurface::LateralSSF, soil::SbmSoilModel, kv_profile::KvLayered, dt)
+    initialize_lateralssf!(subsurface::LateralSSF, soil::SbmSoilModel, kv_profile::KvLayeredExponential, dt)
+
+Initialize lateral subsurface variables `ssf` and `ssfmax` using  vertical hydraulic
+conductivity profile `kv_profile`.
+"""
+function initialize_lateralssf!(
+    subsurface::LateralSSF,
+    soil::SbmSoilModel,
+    kv_profile::KvLayered,
+    dt,
+)
+    (; kh) = subsurface.kh_profile
+    (; nlayers, act_thickl) = soil.parameters
+    (; ssf, ssfmax, zi, khfrac, soilthickness, slope, dw) = subsurface
+    kh_layered_profile!(soil, subsurface, kv_profile, dt)
+    for i in eachindex(ssf)
+        ssf[i] = kh[i] * (soilthickness[i] - zi[i]) * slope[i] * dw[i]
+        kh_max = 0.0
+        for j in 1:nlayers[i]
+            kh_max += kv_profile.kv[i][j] * act_thickl[i][j]
         end
+        kh_max = kh_max * khfrac[i] * 0.001 * 0.001
+        ssfmax[i] = kh_max * slope[i]
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
-"Initialize lateral subsurface variables `ssf`, `ssfmax` and `kh` with ksat_profile` `layered` or `layered_exponential`"
-function initialize_lateralssf_layered!(ssf::LateralSSF, sbm::SBM, ksat_profile)
-    for i in eachindex(ssf.ssf)
-        ssf.kh[i] = kh_layered_profile(sbm, ssf.khfrac[i], i, ksat_profile)
-        ssf.ssf[i] =
-            ssf.kh[i] * (ssf.soilthickness[i] - ssf.zi[i]) * ssf.slope[i] * ssf.dw[i]
+function initialize_lateralssf!(
+    subsurface::LateralSSF,
+    soil::SbmSoilModel,
+    kv_profile::KvLayeredExponential,
+    dt,
+)
+    (; ssf, ssfmax, zi, khfrac, soilthickness, slope, dw) = subsurface
+    (; nlayers, act_thickl) = soil.parameters
+    (; kh) = subsurface.kh_profile
+    (; kv, f, nlayers_kv, z_layered) = kv_profile
+
+    kh_layered_profile!(soil, subsurface, kv_profile, dt)
+    for i in eachindex(ssf)
+        ssf[i] = kh[i] * (soilthickness[i] - zi[i]) * slope[i] * dw[i]
         kh_max = 0.0
-        for j = 1:sbm.nlayers[i]
-            if j <= sbm.nlayers_kv[i]
-                kh_max += sbm.kv[i][j] * sbm.act_thickl[i][j]
+        for j in 1:nlayers[i]
+            if j <= nlayers_kv[i]
+                kh_max += kv[i][j] * act_thickl[i][j]
             else
-                zt = sbm.soilthickness[i] - sbm.z_layered[i]
+                zt = soil.parameters.soilthickness[i] - z_layered[i]
                 k = max(j - 1, 1)
-                kh_max += sbm.kv[i][k] / sbm.f[i] * (1.0 - exp(-sbm.f[i] * zt))
+                kh_max += kv[i][k] / f[i] * (1.0 - exp(-f[i] * zt))
                 break
             end
         end
-        kh_max = kh_max * ssf.khfrac[i] * 0.001 * 0.001
-        ssf.ssfmax[i] = kh_max * ssf.slope[i]
+        kh_max = kh_max * khfrac[i] * 0.001 * 0.001
+        ssfmax[i] = kh_max * slope[i]
     end
+    return nothing
 end
 
 """
diff --git a/src/vegetation/canopy.jl b/src/vegetation/canopy.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..98762ea50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/vegetation/canopy.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+abstract type AbstractInterceptionModel{T} end
+
+"Struct for storing interception model variables"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct InterceptionVariables{T}
+    # Canopy potential evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    canopy_potevap::Vector{T}
+    # Interception loss by evaporation [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    interception_rate::Vector{T}
+    # Canopy storage [mm]
+    canopy_storage::Vector{T} | "mm"
+    # Stemflow [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    stemflow::Vector{T}
+    # Throughfall [mm Δt⁻¹]
+    throughfall::Vector{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize interception model variables"
+function InterceptionVariables(T::Type{<:AbstractFloat}, n::Int)
+    return InterceptionVariables(;
+        canopy_potevap = fill(mv, n),
+        interception_rate = fill(mv, n),
+        canopy_storage = zeros(T, n),
+        stemflow = fill(mv, n),
+        throughfall = fill(mv, n),
+    )
+end
+
+"Struct for storing Gash interception model parameters"
+@get_units @grid_loc @with_kw struct GashParameters{T}
+    # wet canopy [mm Δt⁻¹] and the average precipitation intensity [mm Δt⁻¹] on a saturated canopy
+    e_r::Vector{T} | "-"
+    vegetation_parameter_set::VegetationParameters{T}
+end
+
+"Gash interception model"
+@with_kw struct GashInterceptionModel{T} <: AbstractInterceptionModel{T}
+    parameters::GashParameters{T}
+    variables::InterceptionVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize Gash interception model"
+function GashInterceptionModel(nc, config, inds, vegetation_parameter_set)
+    e_r = ncread(
+        nc,
+        config,
+        "vertical.interception.parameters.e_r";
+        sel = inds,
+        defaults = 0.1,
+        type = Float,
+    )
+    n = length(inds)
+    params =
+        GashParameters(; e_r = e_r, vegetation_parameter_set = vegetation_parameter_set)
+    vars = InterceptionVariables(Float, n)
+    model = GashInterceptionModel(; parameters = params, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Update Gash interception model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::GashInterceptionModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    (; leaf_area_index, canopygapfraction, cmax, kc) =
+        model.parameters.vegetation_parameter_set
+    (; canopy_potevap, throughfall, interception_rate, stemflow, canopy_storage) =
+        model.variables
+    (; precipitation, potential_evaporation) = atmospheric_forcing
+    e_r = model.parameters.e_r
+    n = length(precipitation)
+    if !isnothing(leaf_area_index)
+        update_canopy_parameters!(model)
+        threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+            canopyfraction = 1.0 - canopygapfraction[i]
+            ewet = canopyfraction * potential_evaporation[i] * kc[i]
+            e_r[i] =
+                precipitation[i] > 0.0 ?
+                min(0.25, ewet / max(0.0001, canopyfraction * precipitation[i])) : 0.0
+        end
+    end
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        canopy_potevap[i] = kc[i] * potential_evaporation[i] * (1.0 - canopygapfraction[i])
+        throughfall[i], interception_rate[i], stemflow[i], canopy_storage[i] =
+            rainfall_interception_gash(
+                cmax[i],
+                e_r[i],
+                canopygapfraction[i],
+                precipitation[i],
+                canopy_storage[i],
+                canopy_potevap[i],
+            )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Rutter interception model"
+@with_kw struct RutterInterceptionModel{T} <: AbstractInterceptionModel{T}
+    parameters::VegetationParameters{T}
+    variables::InterceptionVariables{T}
+end
+
+"Initialize Rutter interception model"
+function RutterInterceptionModel(vegetation_parameter_set, n)
+    vars = InterceptionVariables(n)
+    model =
+        RutterInterceptionModel(; parameters = vegetation_parameter_set, variables = vars)
+    return model
+end
+
+"Update Rutter interception model for a single timestep"
+function update!(model::RutterInterceptionModel, atmospheric_forcing::AtmosphericForcing)
+    (; leaf_area_index, canopygapfraction, cmax, kc) =
+        model.parameters.vegetation_parameter_set
+    (; canopy_potevap, throughfall, interception_rate, stemflow, canopy_storage) =
+        model.variables
+    (; precipitation, potential_evaporation) = atmospheric_forcing
+    if !isnothing(leaf_area_index)
+        update_canopy_parameters!(model)
+    end
+    n = length(precipitation)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        canopy_potevap[i] = kc[i] * potential_evaporation[i] * (1.0 - canopygapfraction[i])
+        throughfall[i], interception_rate[i], stemflow[i], canopy_storage[i] =
+            rainfall_interception_modrut(
+                precipitation[i],
+                canopy_potevap[i],
+                canopy_storage[i],
+                canopygapfraction[i],
+                cmax[i],
+            )
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Update canopy parameters `cmax` and `canopygapfraction` based on `leaf_area_index` for a single timestep"
+function update_canopy_parameters!(model::AbstractInterceptionModel)
+    (;
+        leaf_area_index,
+        storage_wood,
+        kext,
+        storage_specific_leaf,
+        canopygapfraction,
+        cmax,
+    ) = model.parameters.vegetation_parameter_set
+
+    n = length(leaf_area_index)
+    threaded_foreach(1:n; basesize = 1000) do i
+        cmax[i] = storage_specific_leaf[i] * leaf_area_index[i] + storage_wood[i]
+        canopygapfraction[i] = exp(-kext[i] * leaf_area_index[i])
+    end
+    return nothing
+end
+
+"Return potential transpiration rate based on the interception rate"
+get_potential_transpiration(model::AbstractInterceptionModel) =
+    @. max(0.0, model.variables.canopy_potevap - model.variables.interception_rate)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/vegetation/rainfall_interception.jl b/src/vegetation/rainfall_interception.jl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..920a0b3dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/vegetation/rainfall_interception.jl
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+
+"""
+    rainfall_interception_gash(cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction, precipitation, canopystorage, maxevap)
+
+Interception according to the Gash model (for daily timesteps). `cmax` is the maximum canopy storage and
+`e_r` is the ratio of the average evaporation from the wet canopy and the average precipitation intensity on
+a saturated canopy.
+"""
+function rainfall_interception_gash(
+    cmax,
+    e_r,
+    canopygapfraction,
+    precipitation,
+    canopystorage,
+    maxevap,
+)
+    # TODO: add other rainfall interception method (lui)
+    # TODO: include subdaily Gash model
+    # TODO: improve computation of stemflow partitioning coefficient pt (0.1 * canopygapfraction)
+    pt = min(0.1 * canopygapfraction, 1.0 - canopygapfraction)
+    pfrac = 1.0 - canopygapfraction - pt
+    p_sat = (-cmax / e_r) * log(1.0 - min((e_r / pfrac), 1.0))
+    p_sat = isinf(p_sat) ? 0.0 : p_sat
+
+    # large storms P > P_sat
+    largestorms = precipitation > p_sat
+
+    iwet = largestorms ? (pfrac * p_sat) - cmax : precipitation * pfrac
+    isat = largestorms ? (e_r) * (precipitation - p_sat) : 0.0
+    idry = largestorms ? cmax : 0.0
+    itrunc = 0.0
+
+    stemflow = pt * precipitation
+
+    throughfall = precipitation - iwet - idry - isat - itrunc - stemflow
+    interception = iwet + idry + isat + itrunc
+
+    # Now corect for area without any Interception (say open water Cmax -- zero)
+    cmaxzero = cmax <= 0.0
+    throughfall = cmaxzero ? precipitation : throughfall
+    interception = cmaxzero ? 0.0 : interception
+    stemflow = cmaxzero ? 0.0 : stemflow
+
+    # Now corect for maximum potential evap
+    canopy_drainage = interception > maxevap ? interception - maxevap : 0.0
+    interception = min(interception, maxevap)
+
+    # Add surpluss to the throughfall
+    throughfall = throughfall + canopy_drainage
+
+    return throughfall, interception, stemflow, canopystorage
+end
+
+"""
+    rainfall_interception_modrut(precipitation, potential_evaporation, canopystorage, canopygapfraction, cmax)
+
+Interception according to a modified Rutter model. The model is solved explicitly and there is no
+drainage below `cmax`.
+"""
+function rainfall_interception_modrut(
+    precipitation,
+    potential_evaporation,
+    canopystorage,
+    canopygapfraction,
+    cmax,
+)
+
+    # TODO: improve computation of stemflow partitioning coefficient pt (0.1 * canopygapfraction)
+    pt = min(0.1 * canopygapfraction, 1.0 - canopygapfraction)
+
+    # Amount of p that falls on the canopy
+    precip_canopy = (1.0 - canopygapfraction - pt) * precipitation
+
+    # Canopystorage cannot be larger than cmax, no gravity drainage below that. This check
+    # is required because cmax can change over time
+    canopy_drainage1 = canopystorage > cmax ? canopystorage - cmax : 0.0
+    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_drainage1
+
+    # Add the precipitation that falls on the canopy to the store
+    canopystorage = canopystorage + precip_canopy
+
+    # Evaporation, make sure the store does not get negative
+    canopy_evap = min(canopystorage, potential_evaporation) # interception rate
+    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_evap
+
+    # Drain the canopystorage again if needed
+    canopy_drainage2 = canopystorage > cmax ? canopystorage - cmax : 0.0
+    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_drainage2
+
+    # Calculate throughfall and stemflow
+    throughfall = canopy_drainage1 + canopy_drainage2 + canopygapfraction * precipitation
+    stemflow = precipitation * pt
+
+    return throughfall, canopy_evap, stemflow, canopystorage
+end
diff --git a/src/vertical_process.jl b/src/vertical_process.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 032a0fc6c..000000000
--- a/src/vertical_process.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,439 +0,0 @@
-"""
-    scurve(x, a, b, c)
-
-Sigmoid "S"-shaped curve.
-
-# Arguments
-- `x::Real`: input
-- `a::Real`: determines the centre level
-- `b::Real`: determines the amplitude of the curve
-- `c::Real`: determines the steepness or "stepwiseness" of the curve.
-             The higher c the sharper the function. A negative c reverses the function.
-"""
-function scurve(x, a, b, c)
-    s = one(x) / (b + exp(-c * (x - a)))
-    return s
-end
-
-"""
-    rainfall_interception_gash(cmax, e_r, canopygapfraction, precipitation, canopystorage, maxevap)
-
-Interception according to the Gash model (for daily timesteps). `cmax` is the maximum canopy storage and
-`e_r` is the ratio of the average evaporation from the wet canopy and the average precipitation intensity on
-a saturated canopy.
-"""
-function rainfall_interception_gash(
-    cmax,
-    e_r,
-    canopygapfraction,
-    precipitation,
-    canopystorage,
-    maxevap,
-)
-    # TODO: add other rainfall interception method (lui)
-    # TODO: include subdaily Gash model
-    # TODO: improve computation of stemflow partitioning coefficient pt (0.1 * canopygapfraction)
-    pt = min(0.1 * canopygapfraction, 1.0 - canopygapfraction)
-    pfrac = 1.0 - canopygapfraction - pt
-    p_sat = (-cmax / e_r) * log(1.0 - min((e_r / pfrac), 1.0))
-    p_sat = isinf(p_sat) ? 0.0 : p_sat
-
-    # large storms P > P_sat
-    largestorms = precipitation > p_sat
-
-    iwet = largestorms ? (pfrac * p_sat) - cmax : precipitation * pfrac
-    isat = largestorms ? (e_r) * (precipitation - p_sat) : 0.0
-    idry = largestorms ? cmax : 0.0
-    itrunc = 0.0
-
-    stemflow = pt * precipitation
-
-    throughfall = precipitation - iwet - idry - isat - itrunc - stemflow
-    interception = iwet + idry + isat + itrunc
-
-    # Now corect for area without any Interception (say open water Cmax -- zero)
-    cmaxzero = cmax <= 0.0
-    throughfall = cmaxzero ? precipitation : throughfall
-    interception = cmaxzero ? 0.0 : interception
-    stemflow = cmaxzero ? 0.0 : stemflow
-
-    # Now corect for maximum potential evap
-    canopy_drainage = interception > maxevap ? interception - maxevap : 0.0
-    interception = min(interception, maxevap)
-
-    # Add surpluss to the throughfall
-    throughfall = throughfall + canopy_drainage
-
-    return throughfall, interception, stemflow, canopystorage
-
-end
-
-"""
-    rainfall_interception_modrut(precipitation, potential_evaporation, canopystorage, canopygapfraction, cmax)
-
-Interception according to a modified Rutter model. The model is solved explicitly and there is no
-drainage below `cmax`.
-"""
-function rainfall_interception_modrut(
-    precipitation,
-    potential_evaporation,
-    canopystorage,
-    canopygapfraction,
-    cmax,
-)
-
-    # TODO: improve computation of stemflow partitioning coefficient pt (0.1 * canopygapfraction)
-    pt = min(0.1 * canopygapfraction, 1.0 - canopygapfraction)
-
-    # Amount of p that falls on the canopy
-    precip_canopy = (1.0 - canopygapfraction - pt) * precipitation
-
-    # Canopystorage cannot be larger than cmax, no gravity drainage below that. This check
-    # is required because cmax can change over time
-    canopy_drainage1 = canopystorage > cmax ? canopystorage - cmax : 0.0
-    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_drainage1
-
-    # Add the precipitation that falls on the canopy to the store
-    canopystorage = canopystorage + precip_canopy
-
-    # Now do the Evap, make sure the store does not get negative
-    canopy_evap = min(canopystorage, potential_evaporation)
-    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_evap
-
-    # Amount of evap not used
-    leftover = potential_evaporation - canopy_evap
-
-    # Now drain the canopystorage again if needed...
-    canopy_drainage2 = canopystorage > cmax ? canopystorage - cmax : 0.0
-    canopystorage = canopystorage - canopy_drainage2
-
-    # Calculate throughfall and stemflow
-    throughfall = canopy_drainage1 + canopy_drainage2 + canopygapfraction * precipitation
-    stemflow = precipitation * pt
-
-    # Calculate interception, this is NET Interception
-    netinterception = precipitation + canopy_drainage1 - throughfall - stemflow
-    interception = canopy_evap
-
-    return netinterception, throughfall, stemflow, leftover, interception, canopystorage
-
-end
-
-"""
-    vwc_brooks_corey(h, hb, theta_s, theta_r, c)
-
-Volumetric water content based on the Brooks-Corey soil hydraulic model.
-"""
-function vwc_brooks_corey(h, hb, theta_s, theta_r, c)
-    if h < hb
-        par_lambda = 2.0 / (c - 3.0)
-        vwc = (theta_s - theta_r) * pow(hb / h, par_lambda) + theta_r
-    else
-        vwc = theta_s
-    end
-    return vwc
-end
-
-"""
-    head_brooks_corey(vwc, theta_s, theta_r, c, hb)
-
-Soil water pressure head based on the Brooks-Corey soil hydraulic model.
-"""
-function head_brooks_corey(vwc, theta_s, theta_r, c, hb)
-    par_lambda = 2.0 / (c - 3.0)
-    # Note that in the original formula, theta_r is extracted from vwc, but theta_r is not part of the numerical vwc calculation
-    h = hb / (pow(((vwc) / (theta_s - theta_r)), (1.0 / par_lambda)))
-    h = min(h, hb)
-    return h
-end
-
-"""
-    feddes_h3(h3_high, h3_low, tpot, Δt)
-
-Return soil water pressure head `h3` of Feddes root water uptake reduction function.
-"""
-function feddes_h3(h3_high, h3_low, tpot, Δt)
-    # value of h3 is a function of potential transpiration [mm/d]
-    tpot_daily = tpot * (basetimestep / Δt)
-    if (tpot_daily >= 0.0) && (tpot_daily <= 1.0)
-        h3 = h3_low
-    elseif (tpot_daily > 1.0) && (tpot_daily < 5.0)
-        h3 = h3_high + ((h3_low - h3_high) * (5.0 - tpot_daily)) / (5.0 - 1.0)
-    else
-        h3 = h3_high
-    end
-    return h3
-end
-
-"""
-    rwu_reduction_feddes(h, h1, h2, h3, h4, alpha_h1)
-
-Root water uptake reduction factor based on Feddes.
-"""
-function rwu_reduction_feddes(h, h1, h2, h3, h4, alpha_h1)
-    # root water uptake reduction coefficient alpha (see also Feddes et al., 1978)
-    if alpha_h1 == 0.0
-        if (h <= h4) || (h > h1)
-            alpha = 0.0
-        elseif (h > h2) && (h <= h1)
-            alpha = (h - h1) / (h2 - h1)
-        elseif (h >= h3) && (h <= h2)
-            alpha = 1.0
-        elseif (h >= h4) && (h < h3)
-            alpha = (h - h4) / (h3 - h4)
-        end
-    else
-        if h <= h4
-            alpha = 0.0
-        elseif h >= h3
-            alpha = 1.0
-        elseif (h >= h4) && (h < h3)
-            alpha = (h - h4) / (h3 - h4)
-        end
-    end
-    return alpha
-end
-
-"""
-    infiltration(avail_forinfilt, pathfrac, cf_soil, tsoil, infiltcapsoil, infiltcappath, ustorecapacity, modelsnow::Bool, soilinfreduction::Bool)
-
-Soil infiltration based on infiltration capacity soil `infiltcapsoil`, infiltration capacity compacted area
-`infiltcappath` and capacity unsatured zone `ustorecapacity`. The soil infiltration capacity can be adjusted
-in case the soil is frozen (`modelsnow` and `soilinfreduction` is `true`).
-
-"""
-function infiltration(
-    avail_forinfilt,
-    pathfrac,
-    cf_soil,
-    tsoil,
-    infiltcapsoil,
-    infiltcappath,
-    ustorecapacity,
-    modelsnow::Bool,
-    soilinfreduction::Bool,
-)
-    # First determine if the soil infiltration capacity can deal with the amount of water
-    # split between infiltration in undisturbed soil and compacted areas (paths)
-    soilinf = avail_forinfilt * (1.0 - pathfrac)
-    pathinf = avail_forinfilt * pathfrac
-    if modelsnow && soilinfreduction
-        bb = 1.0 / (1.0 - cf_soil)
-        soilinfredu = scurve(tsoil, Float(0.0), bb, Float(8.0)) + cf_soil
-    else
-        soilinfredu = 1.0
-    end
-    max_infiltsoil = min(infiltcapsoil * soilinfredu, soilinf)
-    max_infiltpath = min(infiltcappath * soilinfredu, pathinf)
-    infiltsoilpath = min(max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil, max(0.0, ustorecapacity))
-
-    if max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil > 0.0
-        infiltsoil =
-            max_infiltsoil *
-            min(1.0, max(0.0, ustorecapacity) / (max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil))
-        infiltpath =
-            max_infiltpath *
-            min(1.0, max(0.0, ustorecapacity) / (max_infiltpath + max_infiltsoil))
-    else
-        infiltsoil = 0.0
-        infiltpath = 0.0
-    end
-
-    infiltexcess = (soilinf - max_infiltsoil) + (pathinf - max_infiltpath)
-
-    return infiltsoilpath,
-    infiltsoil,
-    infiltpath,
-    soilinf,
-    pathinf,
-    infiltexcess,
-    soilinfredu
-end
-
-"""
-    unsatzone_flow_layer(usd, kv_z, l_sat, c)
-
-Assuming a unit head gradient, the transfer of water from an unsaturated store layer `usd` is controlled by the
-vertical saturated hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` (bottom layer or water table), the effective saturation
-degree of the layer (ratio `usd` and `l_sat`), and a Brooks-Corey power coefficient `c`.
-"""
-function unsatzone_flow_layer(usd, kv_z, l_sat, c)
-    if usd <= 0.0
-        return 0.0, 0.0
-    end
-    sum_ast = 0.0
-    # first transfer soil water > maximum soil water capacity layer (iteration is not required because of steady theta (usd))
-    st = kv_z * min(pow(usd / l_sat, c), 1.0)
-    st_sat = max(0.0, usd - l_sat)
-    usd -= min(st, st_sat)
-    sum_ast = sum_ast + min(st, st_sat)
-    ast = max(min(st - min(st, st_sat), usd), 0.0)
-    # number of iterations (to reduce "overshooting") based on fixed maximum change in soil water per iteration step (0.2 mm / model timestep)
-    its = Int(cld(ast, 0.2))
-    for _ = 1:its
-        st = (kv_z / its) * min(pow(usd / l_sat, c), 1.0)
-        ast = min(st, usd)
-        usd -= ast
-        sum_ast += ast
-    end
-
-    return usd, sum_ast
-end
-
-"""
-    unsatzone_flow_sbm(ustorelayerdepth, soilwatercapacity, satwaterdepth, kv_z, usl, theta_s, theta_r)
-
-The transfer of water from the unsaturated store `ustorelayerdepth` to the saturated store `satwaterdepth`
-is controlled by the vertical saturated hydraulic conductivity `kv_z` at the water table and the ratio between
-`ustorelayerdepth` and the saturation deficit (`soilwatercapacity` minus `satwaterdepth`). This is the
-original Topog_SBM vertical transfer formulation.
-
-"""
-function unsatzone_flow_sbm(
-    ustorelayerdepth,
-    soilwatercapacity,
-    satwaterdepth,
-    kv_z,
-    usl,
-    theta_s,
-    theta_r,
-)
-
-    sd = soilwatercapacity - satwaterdepth
-    if sd <= 0.00001
-        ast = 0.0
-    else
-        st = kv_z * min(ustorelayerdepth, usl * (theta_s - theta_r)) / sd
-        ast = min(st, ustorelayerdepth)
-        ustorelayerdepth = ustorelayerdepth - ast
-    end
-
-    return ustorelayerdepth, ast
-
-end
-
-
-"""
-    snowpack_hbv(snow, snowwater, precipitation, temperature, tti, tt, ttm, cfmax, whc)
-
-HBV type snowpack modeling using a temperature degree factor.
-All correction factors (RFCF and SFCF) are set to 1.
-The refreezing efficiency factor is set to 0.05.
-
-# Arguments
-- `snow` (snow storage)
-- `snowwater` (liquid water content in the snow pack)
-- `precipitation` (throughfall + stemflow)
-- `temperature`
-- `tti` (snowfall threshold interval length)
-- `tt` (threshold temperature for snowfall)
-- `ttm` (melting threshold)
-- `cfmax` (degree day factor, rate of snowmelt)
-- `whc` (Water holding capacity of snow)
-- `rfcf` correction factor for rainfall
-- `sfcf` correction factor for snowfall
-- `cfr` refreeing efficiency constant in refreezing of freewater in snow
-
-# Output
-- `snow`
-- `snowwater`
-- `snowmelt`
-- `rainfall` (precipitation that occurs as rainfall)
-- `snowfall` (precipitation that occurs as snowfall)
-"""
-function snowpack_hbv(
-    snow,
-    snowwater,
-    precipitation,
-    temperature,
-    tti,
-    tt,
-    ttm,
-    cfmax,
-    whc;
-    rfcf = 1.0,
-    sfcf = 1.0,
-    cfr = 0.05,
-)
-
-    # fraction of precipitation which falls as rain
-    rainfrac = if iszero(tti)
-        Float(temperature > tt)
-    else
-        frac = (temperature - (tt - tti / 2.0)) / tti
-        min(frac, 1.0)
-    end
-    rainfrac = max(rainfrac, 0.0)
-
-    # fraction of precipitation which falls as snow
-    snowfrac = 1.0 - rainfrac
-    # different correction for rainfall and snowfall
-    snowfall = snowfrac * sfcf * precipitation  # snowfall depth
-    rainfall = rainfrac * rfcf * precipitation  # rainfall depth
-    # potential snow melt, based on temperature
-    potsnowmelt = temperature > ttm ? cfmax * (temperature - ttm) : 0.0
-    # potential refreezing, based on temperature
-    potrefreezing = temperature < ttm ? cfmax * cfr * (ttm - temperature) : 0.0
-    # actual refreezing
-    refreezing = temperature < ttm ? min(potrefreezing, snowwater) : 0.0
-
-    # no landuse correction here
-    snowmelt = min(potsnowmelt, snow)  # actual snow melt
-    snow = snow + snowfall + refreezing - snowmelt  # dry snow content
-    snowwater = snowwater - refreezing  # free water content in snow
-    maxsnowwater = snow * whc  # max water in the snow
-    snowwater = snowwater + snowmelt + rainfall  # add all water and potentially supersaturate the snowpack
-    rainfall = max(snowwater - maxsnowwater, 0.0)  # rain + surpluss snowwater
-    snowwater = snowwater - rainfall
-
-    return snow, snowwater, snowmelt, rainfall, snowfall
-end
-
-"""
-    glacier_hbv(glacierfrac, glacierstore, snow, temperature, tt, cfmax, g_sifrac, dt)
-
-HBV-light type of glacier modelling.
-First, a fraction of the snowpack is converted into ice using the HBV-light
-model (fraction between 0.001-0.005 per day).
-Glacier melting is modelled using a temperature degree factor and only
-occurs if the snow cover < 10 mm.
-
-# Arguments
-- `glacierFrac` fraction covered by glaciers [-]
-- `glacierstore` volume of the glacier [mm] w.e.
-- `snow` snow pack on top of glacier [mm]
-- `temperature` air temperature [°C]
-- `tt` temperature threshold for ice melting [°C]
-- `cfmax` ice degree-day factor in [mm/(°C/day)]
-- `g_sifrac` fraction of the snow turned into ice [-]
-- `dt` model timestep [s]
-
-# Output
-- `snow`
-- `snow2glacier`
-- `glacierstore`
-- `glaciermelt`
-
-"""
-function glacier_hbv(glacierfrac, glacierstore, snow, temperature, tt, cfmax, g_sifrac, dt)
-
-    # Fraction of the snow transformed into ice (HBV-light model)
-    snow2glacier = g_sifrac * snow
-    snow2glacier = glacierfrac > 0.0 ? snow2glacier : 0.0
-
-    # Max conversion to 8mm/day
-    snow2glacier = min(snow2glacier, 8.0 * (dt / basetimestep))
-
-    snow = snow - (snow2glacier * glacierfrac)
-    glacierstore = glacierstore + snow2glacier
-
-    # Potential snow melt, based on temperature
-    potmelt = temperature > tt ? cfmax * (temperature - tt) : 0.0
-
-    # actual Glacier melt
-    glaciermelt = snow < 10.0 ? min(potmelt, glacierstore) : 0.0
-    glacierstore = glacierstore - glaciermelt
-
-    return snow, snow2glacier, glacierstore, glaciermelt
-
-end
diff --git a/src/water_demand.jl b/src/water_demand.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 432db1b69..000000000
--- a/src/water_demand.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,626 +0,0 @@
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct NonIrrigationDemand{T}
-    demand_gross::Vector{T}                 # gross water demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    demand_net::Vector{T}                   # net water demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    returnflow_fraction::Vector{T} | "-"    # return flow fraction [-]
-    returnflow::Vector{T}                   # return flow [mm Δt⁻¹]
-end
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct NonPaddy{T}
-    demand_gross::Vector{T}                     # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹] 
-    irrigation_efficiency::Vector{T} | "-"      # irrigation efficiency [-]
-    maximum_irrigation_rate::Vector{T}          # maximum irrigation depth [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    irrigation_areas::Vector{Bool} | "-"        # irrigation areas [-]
-    irrigation_trigger::Vector{Bool} | "-"      # irrigation on or off [-]
-end
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct Paddy{T}
-    demand_gross::Vector{T}                     # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹] 
-    irrigation_efficiency::Vector{T} | "-"      # irrigation efficiency [-]
-    maximum_irrigation_rate::Vector{T}          # maximum irrigation depth [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    irrigation_areas::Vector{Bool} | "-"        # irrigation areas [-]
-    irrigation_trigger::Vector{Bool} | "-"      # irrigation on or off [-]
-    h_min::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # minimum required water depth in the irrigated rice field [mm]
-    h_opt::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # optimal water depth in the irrigated rice fields [mm]
-    h_max::Vector{T} | "mm"                     # water depth when rice field starts spilling water (overflow) [mm]
-    h::Vector{T} | "mm"                         # actual water depth in rice field [mm]
-end
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct AllocationRiver{T}
-    act_surfacewater_abst::Vector{T}                    # actual surface water abstraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    act_surfacewater_abst_vol::Vector{T} | "m3 dt-1"    # actual surface water abstraction [m³ Δt⁻¹]
-    available_surfacewater::Vector{T} | "m3"            # available surface water [m³]
-    nonirri_returnflow::Vector{T}                       # return flow from non irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹] 
-end
-
-@get_units @exchange @grid_type @grid_location @with_kw struct AllocationLand{T}
-    irri_demand_gross::Vector{T}                        # irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    nonirri_demand_gross::Vector{T}                     # non-irrigation gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    total_gross_demand::Vector{T}                       # total gross demand [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    frac_sw_used::Vector{T} | "-"                       # fraction surface water used [-]
-    areas::Vector{Int} | "-"                            # allocation areas [-]
-    surfacewater_demand::Vector{T}                      # demand from surface water [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    surfacewater_alloc::Vector{T}                       # allocation from surface water [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    act_groundwater_abst::Vector{T}                     # actual groundwater abstraction [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    act_groundwater_abst_vol::Vector{T} | "m3 dt-1"     # actual groundwater abstraction [m³ Δt⁻¹]
-    available_groundwater::Vector{T} | "m3"             # available groundwater [m³]
-    groundwater_demand::Vector{T}                       # demand from groundwater [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    groundwater_alloc::Vector{T}                        # allocation from groundwater [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    irri_alloc::Vector{T}                               # allocated water for irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    nonirri_alloc::Vector{T}                            # allocated water for non-irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    total_alloc::Vector{T}                              # total allocated water [mm Δt⁻¹]
-    nonirri_returnflow::Vector{T}                       # return flow from non irrigation [mm Δt⁻¹]
-end
-
-"Return return flow fraction based on gross water demand `demand_gross` and net water demand `demand_net`"
-function returnflow_fraction(demand_gross, demand_net)
-    fraction = bounded_divide(demand_net, demand_gross)
-    returnflow_fraction = 1.0 - fraction
-    return returnflow_fraction
-end
-
-"Initialize water demand for the domestic sector"
-function initialize_domestic_demand(nc, config, inds, dt)
-    demand_gross =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.domestic.demand_gross";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    demand_net =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.domestic.demand_net";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    n = length(inds)
-    returnflow_f = returnflow_fraction.(demand_gross, demand_net)
-
-    domestic = NonIrrigationDemand{Float}(
-        demand_gross = demand_gross,
-        demand_net = demand_net,
-        returnflow_fraction = returnflow_f,
-        returnflow = fill(Float(0), n),
-    )
-
-    return domestic
-end
-
-"Initialize water demand for the industry sector"
-function initialize_industry_demand(nc, config, inds, dt)
-    demand_gross =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.industry.demand_gross";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    demand_net =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.industry.demand_net";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    n = length(inds)
-    returnflow_f = returnflow_fraction.(demand_gross, demand_net)
-
-    industry = NonIrrigationDemand{Float}(
-        demand_gross = demand_gross,
-        demand_net = demand_net,
-        returnflow_fraction = returnflow_f,
-        returnflow = fill(Float(0), n),
-    )
-
-    return industry
-end
-
-"Initialize water demand for the livestock sector"
-function initialize_livestock_demand(nc, config, inds, dt)
-    demand_gross =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.livestock.demand_gross";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    demand_net =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.livestock.demand_net";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 0.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-    n = length(inds)
-    returnflow_f = returnflow_fraction.(demand_gross, demand_net)
-
-    livestock = NonIrrigationDemand{Float}(
-        demand_gross = demand_gross,
-        demand_net = demand_net,
-        returnflow_fraction = returnflow_f,
-        returnflow = fill(Float(0), n),
-    )
-    return livestock
-end
-
-"Initialize paddy (rice) fields for water demand and irrigation computations"
-function initialize_paddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
-    h_min = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.h_min";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 20.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    h_opt = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.h_opt";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 50.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    h_max = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.h_max";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 80.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    efficiency = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.irrigation_efficiency";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    areas = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.irrigation_areas";
-        sel = inds,
-        optional = false,
-        type = Bool,
-    )
-    irrigation_trigger = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.paddy.irrigation_trigger";
-        sel = inds,
-        optional = false,
-        type = Bool,
-    )
-    max_irri_rate =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.paddy.maximum_irrigation_rate";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 25.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    paddy = Paddy{Float}(
-        demand_gross = fill(mv, length(inds)),
-        irrigation_efficiency = efficiency,
-        maximum_irrigation_rate = max_irri_rate,
-        irrigation_trigger = irrigation_trigger,
-        h_min = h_min,
-        h_max = h_max,
-        h_opt = h_opt,
-        irrigation_areas = areas,
-        h = fill(0.0, length(inds)),
-    )
-    return paddy
-end
-
-"Initialize crop (non paddy) fields for water demand and irrigation computations"
-function initialize_nonpaddy(nc, config, inds, dt)
-    efficiency = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.nonpaddy.irrigation_efficiency";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1.0,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    areas = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.nonpaddy.irrigation_areas";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1,
-        optional = false,
-        type = Int,
-    )
-    irrigation_trigger = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1,
-        optional = false,
-        type = Bool,
-    )
-    max_irri_rate =
-        ncread(
-            nc,
-            config,
-            "vertical.nonpaddy.maximum_irrigation_rate";
-            sel = inds,
-            defaults = 25.0,
-            type = Float,
-        ) .* (dt / basetimestep)
-
-    nonpaddy = NonPaddy{Float}(
-        demand_gross = fill(mv, length(inds)),
-        maximum_irrigation_rate = max_irri_rate,
-        irrigation_efficiency = efficiency,
-        irrigation_areas = areas,
-        irrigation_trigger = irrigation_trigger,
-    )
-
-    return nonpaddy
-end
-
-"Initialize water allocation for the river domain"
-function initialize_allocation_river(n)
-    allocation = AllocationRiver(
-        act_surfacewater_abst = zeros(Float, n),
-        act_surfacewater_abst_vol = zeros(Float, n),
-        available_surfacewater = zeros(Float, n),
-        nonirri_returnflow = zeros(Float, n),
-    )
-    return allocation
-end
-
-"Initialize water allocation for the land domain (`vertical`)"
-function initialize_allocation_land(nc, config, inds)
-    frac_sw_used = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.allocation.frac_sw_used";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1,
-        type = Float,
-    )
-    areas = ncread(
-        nc,
-        config,
-        "vertical.allocation.areas";
-        sel = inds,
-        defaults = 1,
-        type = Int,
-    )
-
-    n = length(inds)
-
-    allocation = AllocationLand(
-        irri_demand_gross = zeros(Float, n),
-        nonirri_demand_gross = zeros(Float, n),
-        total_gross_demand = zeros(Float, n),
-        frac_sw_used = frac_sw_used,
-        areas = areas,
-        surfacewater_demand = zeros(Float, n),
-        surfacewater_alloc = zeros(Float, n),
-        act_groundwater_abst = zeros(Float, n),
-        act_groundwater_abst_vol = zeros(Float, n),
-        available_groundwater = zeros(Float, n),
-        groundwater_demand = zeros(Float, n),
-        groundwater_alloc = zeros(Float, n),
-        irri_alloc = zeros(Float, n),
-        nonirri_alloc = zeros(Float, n),
-        total_alloc = zeros(Float, n),
-        nonirri_returnflow = zeros(Float, n),
-    )
-    return allocation
-end
-
-"Return non-irrigation gross demand and update returnflow fraction"
-function update_non_irrigation_demand(non_irri::NonIrrigationDemand, i)
-    non_irri.returnflow_fraction[i] =
-        returnflow_fraction(non_irri.demand_gross[i], non_irri.demand_net[i])
-    return non_irri.demand_gross[i]
-end
-
-# return zero (gross demand) if non-irrigation sector is not defined
-update_non_irrigation_demand(non_irri::Nothing, i) = 0.0
-
-"Update water allocation for river and land domains based on local surface water (river) availability."
-function surface_water_allocation_local(land, river, network)
-    # maps from the land domain to the internal river domain (linear index), excluding water bodies
-    index_river = network.land.index_river_wb
-    for i in eachindex(land.allocation.surfacewater_demand)
-        if index_river[i] > 0.0
-            # the available volume is limited by a fixed scaling factor of 0.8 to prevent
-            # rivers completely drying out. check for abstraction through inflow (external
-            # negative inflow) and adjust available volume.
-            if river.inflow[index_river[i]] < 0.0
-                inflow = river.inflow[index_river[i]] * land.dt
-                available_volume = max(river.volume[index_river[i]] * 0.80 + inflow, 0.0)
-            else
-                available_volume = river.volume[index_river[i]] * 0.80
-            end
-            # satisfy surface water demand with available local river volume
-            surfacewater_demand_vol =
-                land.allocation.surfacewater_demand[i] * 0.001 * network.land.area[i]
-            abstraction_vol = min(surfacewater_demand_vol, available_volume)
-            river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol[index_river[i]] = abstraction_vol
-            # remaining available surface water and demand 
-            river.allocation.available_surfacewater[index_river[i]] =
-                max(available_volume - abstraction_vol, 0.0)
-            abstraction = (abstraction_vol / network.land.area[i]) * 1000.0
-            land.allocation.surfacewater_demand[i] =
-                max(land.allocation.surfacewater_demand[i] - abstraction, 0.0)
-            # update actual abstraction from river and surface water allocation (land cell)
-            river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst[index_river[i]] = abstraction
-            land.allocation.surfacewater_alloc[i] = abstraction
-        end
-    end
-end
-
-"Update water allocation for river and land domains based on surface water (river) availability for allocation areas."
-function surface_water_allocation_area(land, river, network)
-    inds_river = network.river.indices_allocation_areas
-    inds_land = network.land.indices_allocation_areas
-    res_index = network.river.reservoir_index
-    lake_index = network.river.lake_index
-
-    m = length(inds_river)
-    # loop over allocation areas
-    for i = 1:m
-        # surface water demand (allocation area)
-        sw_demand_vol = 0.0
-        for j in inds_land[i]
-            sw_demand_vol +=
-                land.allocation.surfacewater_demand[j] * 0.001 * network.land.area[j]
-        end
-        # surface water availability (allocation area)
-        sw_available = 0.0
-        for j in inds_river[i]
-            # for reservoir locations use reservoir volume
-            if res_index[j] > 0
-                k = res_index[j]
-                river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j] =
-                    river.reservoir.volume[k] * 0.98 # limit available reservoir volume
-                sw_available += river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j]
-                # for lake locations use lake volume
-            elseif lake_index[j] > 0
-                k = lake_index[j]
-                river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j] = river.lake.storage[k] * 0.98 # limit available lake volume
-                sw_available += river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j]
-                # river volume
-            else
-                sw_available += river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j]
-            end
-        end
-        # total actual surface water abstraction [m3] in an allocation area, minimum of
-        # available surface water and demand in an allocation area.
-        sw_abstraction = min(sw_available, sw_demand_vol)
-
-        # fraction of available surface water that can be abstracted at allocation area
-        # level
-        frac_abstract_sw = bounded_divide(sw_abstraction, sw_available)
-        # fraction of water demand that can be satisfied by available surface water at
-        # allocation area level. 
-        frac_allocate_sw = bounded_divide(sw_abstraction, sw_demand_vol)
-
-        # water abstracted from surface water at each river cell (including reservoir and
-        # lake locations).
-        for j in inds_river[i]
-            river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol[j] +=
-                frac_abstract_sw * river.allocation.available_surfacewater[j]
-            river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst[j] =
-                (river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol[j] / network.river.area[j]) *
-                1000.0
-        end
-
-        # water allocated to each land cell.
-        for j in inds_land[i]
-            land.allocation.surfacewater_alloc[j] +=
-                frac_allocate_sw * land.allocation.surfacewater_demand[j]
-        end
-    end
-end
-
-"Update water allocation for subsurface domain based on local groundwater availability."
-function groundwater_allocation_local(land, groundwater_volume, network)
-    for i in eachindex(land.allocation.groundwater_demand)
-        # groundwater demand based on allocation from surface water.
-        land.allocation.groundwater_demand[i] = max(
-            land.allocation.total_gross_demand[i] - land.allocation.surfacewater_alloc[i],
-            0.0,
-        )
-        # land index excluding water bodies
-        if network.index_wb[i]
-            # satisfy groundwater demand with available local groundwater volume
-            groundwater_demand_vol =
-                land.allocation.groundwater_demand[i] * 0.001 * network.area[i]
-            available_volume = groundwater_volume[i] * 0.75 # limit available groundwater volume
-            abstraction_vol = min(groundwater_demand_vol, available_volume)
-            land.allocation.act_groundwater_abst_vol[i] = abstraction_vol
-            # remaining available groundwater and demand 
-            land.allocation.available_groundwater[i] =
-                max(available_volume - abstraction_vol, 0.0)
-            abstraction = (abstraction_vol / network.area[i]) * 1000.0
-            land.allocation.groundwater_demand[i] =
-                max(land.allocation.groundwater_demand[i] - abstraction, 0.0)
-            # update actual abstraction from groundwater and groundwater allocation (land cell)
-            land.allocation.act_groundwater_abst[i] = abstraction
-            land.allocation.groundwater_alloc[i] = abstraction
-        end
-    end
-end
-
-"Update water allocation for subsurface domain based on groundwater availability for allocation areas."
-function groundwater_allocation_area(land, network)
-    inds_river = network.river.indices_allocation_areas
-    inds_land = network.land.indices_allocation_areas
-    m = length(inds_river)
-    # loop over allocation areas
-    for i = 1:m
-        # groundwater demand and availability (allocation area)
-        gw_demand_vol = 0.0
-        gw_available = 0.0
-        for j in inds_land[i]
-            gw_demand_vol +=
-                land.allocation.groundwater_demand[j] * 0.001 * network.land.area[j]
-            gw_available += land.allocation.available_groundwater[j]
-        end
-        # total actual groundwater abstraction [m3] in an allocation area, minimum of
-        # available  groundwater and demand in an allocation area.
-        gw_abstraction = min(gw_available, gw_demand_vol)
-
-        # fraction of available groundwater that can be abstracted at allocation area level
-        frac_abstract_gw = bounded_divide(gw_abstraction, gw_available)
-        # fraction of water demand that can be satisfied by available groundwater at
-        # allocation area level.
-        frac_allocate_gw = bounded_divide(gw_abstraction, gw_demand_vol)
-
-        # water abstracted from groundwater and allocated.
-        for j in inds_land[i]
-            land.allocation.act_groundwater_abst_vol[j] +=
-                frac_abstract_gw * land.allocation.available_groundwater[j]
-            land.allocation.act_groundwater_abst[j] =
-                1000.0 *
-                (land.allocation.act_groundwater_abst_vol[j] / network.land.area[j])
-            land.allocation.groundwater_alloc[j] +=
-                frac_allocate_gw * land.allocation.groundwater_demand[j]
-        end
-    end
-end
-
-"Return and update non-irrigation sector (domestic, livestock, industry) return flow"
-function return_flow(non_irri::NonIrrigationDemand, allocation)
-    for i in eachindex(non_irri.returnflow)
-        frac = bounded_divide(non_irri.demand_gross[i], allocation.nonirri_demand_gross[i])
-        allocate = frac * allocation.nonirri_alloc[i]
-        non_irri.returnflow[i] = non_irri.returnflow_fraction[i] * allocate
-    end
-    return non_irri.returnflow
-end
-
-# return zero (return flow) if non-irrigation sector is not defined
-return_flow(non_irri::Nothing, allocation) = 0.0
-
-groundwater_volume(gw::LateralSSF) = gw.volume
-groundwater_volume(gw) = gw.flow.aquifer.volume
-
-"""
-    update_water_allocation(model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T}) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:Union{SbmModel, SbmGwfModel}}
-
-Update water allocation for model type `sbm` or `sbm_gwf` for a single timestep. First,
-surface water abstraction is computed to satisfy local water demand (non-irrigation and
-irrigation), and then updated (including lakes and reservoirs) to satisfy the remaining
-water demand for allocation areas. Then groundwater abstraction is computed to satisfy the
-remaining local water demand, and then updated to satisfy the remaining water demand for
-allocation areas. Finally, non-irrigation return flows are updated.
-"""
-function update_water_allocation(
-    model::Model{N,L,V,R,W,T},
-) where {N,L,V,R,W,T<:Union{SbmModel,SbmGwfModel}}
-
-    (; network, lateral, vertical) = model
-
-    river = lateral.river
-    index_river = network.land.index_river_wb
-    res_index_f = network.river.reservoir_index_f
-    lake_index_f = network.river.lake_index_f
-
-    vertical.allocation.surfacewater_alloc .= 0.0
-    river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst .= 0.0
-    river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol .= 0.0
-    # total surface water demand for each land cell
-    @. vertical.allocation.surfacewater_demand =
-        vertical.allocation.frac_sw_used * vertical.allocation.nonirri_demand_gross +
-        vertical.allocation.frac_sw_used * vertical.allocation.irri_demand_gross
-
-    # local surface water demand and allocation (river, excluding reservoirs and lakes)
-    surface_water_allocation_local(vertical, river, network)
-    # surface water demand and allocation for areas
-    surface_water_allocation_area(vertical, river, network)
-
-    @. river.abstraction = river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol / vertical.dt
-
-    # for reservoir and lake locations set river abstraction at zero and abstract volume
-    # from reservoir and lake, including an update of lake waterlevel
-    if !isnothing(river.reservoir)
-        @. river.abstraction[res_index_f] = 0.0
-        @. river.reservoir.volume -= river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol[res_index_f]
-    elseif !isnothing(river.lake)
-        @. river.abstraction[lake_index_f] = 0.0
-        lakes = river.lake
-        @. lakes.storage -= river.allocation.act_surfacewater_abst_vol[lake_index_f]
-        @. lakes.waterlevel =
-            waterlevel(lakes.storfunc, lakes.area, lakes.storage, lakes.sh)
-    end
-
-    vertical.allocation.groundwater_alloc .= 0.0
-    vertical.allocation.act_groundwater_abst_vol .= 0.0
-    vertical.allocation.act_groundwater_abst .= 0.0
-    # local groundwater demand and allocation
-    groundwater_allocation_local(
-        vertical,
-        groundwater_volume(lateral.subsurface),
-        network.land,
-    )
-    # groundwater demand and allocation for areas
-    groundwater_allocation_area(vertical, network)
-
-    # irrigation allocation
-    for i in eachindex(vertical.allocation.total_alloc)
-        vertical.allocation.total_alloc[i] =
-            vertical.allocation.groundwater_alloc[i] +
-            vertical.allocation.surfacewater_alloc[i]
-        frac_irri = bounded_divide(
-            vertical.allocation.irri_demand_gross[i],
-            vertical.allocation.total_gross_demand[i],
-        )
-        vertical.allocation.irri_alloc[i] = frac_irri * vertical.allocation.total_alloc[i]
-        vertical.allocation.nonirri_alloc[i] =
-            vertical.allocation.total_alloc[i] - vertical.allocation.irri_alloc[i]
-    end
-
-    # non-irrigation return flows
-    returnflow_livestock = return_flow(vertical.livestock, vertical.allocation)
-    returnflow_domestic = return_flow(vertical.domestic, vertical.allocation)
-    returnflow_industry = return_flow(vertical.industry, vertical.allocation)
-
-    # map non-irrigation return flow to land and river water allocation
-    if (
-        !isnothing(vertical.livestock) ||
-        !isnothing(vertical.domestic) ||
-        !isnothing(vertical.industry)
-    )
-        @. vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow =
-            returnflow_livestock + returnflow_domestic + returnflow_industry
-
-        for i in eachindex(vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow)
-            if index_river[i] > 0.0
-                k = index_river[i]
-                river.allocation.nonirri_returnflow[k] =
-                    vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow[i]
-                vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow[i] = 0.0
-            else
-                vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow[i] =
-                    vertical.allocation.nonirri_returnflow[i]
-            end
-        end
-    end
-end
diff --git a/test/bmi.jl b/test/bmi.jl
index ba0f3751b..23d3c15a6 100644
--- a/test/bmi.jl
+++ b/test/bmi.jl
@@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
 
-
 @testset "BMI" begin
-
     @testset "BMI functions" begin
-
         model = BMI.initialize(Wflow.Model, tomlpath)
 
         @testset "initialization and time functions" begin
@@ -20,11 +17,11 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
 
         @testset "model information functions" begin
             @test BMI.get_component_name(model) == "sbm"
-            @test BMI.get_input_item_count(model) == 207
-            @test BMI.get_output_item_count(model) == 207
+            @test BMI.get_input_item_count(model) == 203
+            @test BMI.get_output_item_count(model) == 203
             to_check = [
-                "vertical.nlayers",
-                "vertical.theta_r",
+                "vertical.soil.parameters.nlayers",
+                "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_r",
                 "lateral.river.q",
                 "lateral.river.reservoir.outflow",
             ]
@@ -35,12 +32,12 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
         end
 
         @testset "variable information functions" begin
-            @test BMI.get_var_grid(model, "vertical.theta_s") == 6
+            @test BMI.get_var_grid(model, "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s") == 6
             @test BMI.get_var_grid(model, "lateral.river.h") == 3
             @test BMI.get_var_grid(model, "lateral.river.reservoir.inflow") == 0
             @test_throws ErrorException BMI.get_var_grid(model, "lateral.river.lake.volume")
             @test BMI.get_var_type(model, "lateral.river.reservoir.inflow") == "$Float"
-            @test BMI.get_var_units(model, "vertical.theta_s") == "-"
+            @test BMI.get_var_units(model, "vertical.soil.parameters.theta_s") == "-"
             @test BMI.get_var_itemsize(model, "lateral.subsurface.ssf") == sizeof(Float)
             @test BMI.get_var_nbytes(model, "lateral.river.q") ==
                   length(model.lateral.river.q) * sizeof(Float)
@@ -55,34 +52,46 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
         @testset "update and get and set functions" begin
             @test BMI.get_current_time(model) == 86400.0
             @test_throws ErrorException BMI.get_value_ptr(model, "vertical.")
-            dest = zeros(Float, size(model.vertical.zi))
-            BMI.get_value(model, "vertical.zi", dest)
+            dest = zeros(Float, size(model.vertical.soil.variables.zi))
+            BMI.get_value(model, "vertical.soil.variables.zi", dest)
             @test mean(dest) ≈ 276.1625022866973
             @test BMI.get_value_at_indices(
                 model,
-                "vertical.vwc[1]",
+                "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[1]",
                 zeros(Float, 3),
                 [1, 2, 3],
-            ) ≈ getindex.(model.vertical.vwc, 1)[1:3]
+            ) ≈ getindex.(model.vertical.soil.variables.vwc, 1)[1:3]
             BMI.set_value_at_indices(
                 model,
-                "vertical.vwc[2]",
+                "vertical.soil.variables.vwc[2]",
                 [1, 2, 3],
                 [0.10, 0.15, 0.20],
-            ) ≈ getindex.(model.vertical.vwc, 2)[1:3]
+            ) ≈ getindex.(model.vertical.soil.variables.vwc, 2)[1:3]
             @test BMI.get_value_at_indices(
                 model,
                 "lateral.river.q",
                 zeros(Float, 3),
                 [1, 100, 5617],
             ) ≈ [0.623325399343309, 5.227139951657074, 0.027942874327781947]
-            BMI.set_value(model, "vertical.zi", fill(300.0, length(model.vertical.zi)))
+            BMI.set_value(
+                model,
+                "vertical.soil.variables.zi",
+                fill(300.0, length(model.vertical.soil.variables.zi)),
+            )
             @test mean(
-                BMI.get_value(model, "vertical.zi", zeros(Float, size(model.vertical.zi))),
+                BMI.get_value(
+                    model,
+                    "vertical.soil.variables.zi",
+                    zeros(Float, size(model.vertical.soil.variables.zi)),
+                ),
             ) == 300.0
-            BMI.set_value_at_indices(model, "vertical.zi", [1], [250.0])
-            @test BMI.get_value_at_indices(model, "vertical.zi", zeros(Float, 2), [1, 2]) ==
-                  [250.0, 300.0]
+            BMI.set_value_at_indices(model, "vertical.soil.variables.zi", [1], [250.0])
+            @test BMI.get_value_at_indices(
+                model,
+                "vertical.soil.variables.zi",
+                zeros(Float, 2),
+                [1, 2],
+            ) == [250.0, 300.0]
         end
 
         @testset "model grid functions" begin
@@ -125,7 +134,6 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
                 BMI.update_until(model, time - BMI.get_time_step(model))
             BMI.finalize(model)
         end
-
     end
 
     @testset "BMI grid edges" begin
@@ -150,15 +158,15 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
         model = BMI.initialize(Wflow.Model, tomlpath)
 
         # update the recharge part of the SBM model
-        model = BMI.update(model, run = "sbm_until_recharge")
+        model = BMI.update(model; run = "sbm_until_recharge")
 
         @testset "recharge part of SBM" begin
             sbm = model.vertical
-            @test sbm.interception[1] ≈ 0.32734913737568716f0
-            @test sbm.ustorelayerdepth[1][1] ≈ 0.0f0
-            @test sbm.snow[1] ≈ 3.4847899611762876f0
-            @test sbm.recharge[5] ≈ 0.0f0
-            @test sbm.zi[5] ≈ 300.0f0
+            @test sbm.interception.variables.interception_rate[1] ≈ 0.32734913737568716f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.ustorelayerdepth[1][1] ≈ 0.0f0
+            @test sbm.snow.variables.snow_storage[1] ≈ 3.4847899611762876f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.recharge[5] ≈ 0.0f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.zi[5] ≈ 300.0f0
         end
 
         # set zi and exfiltwater from external source (e.g. a groundwater model)
@@ -173,16 +181,16 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
             fill(1.0e-5, BMI.get_grid_node_count(model, 6)),
         )
         # update SBM after subsurface flow
-        model = BMI.update(model, run = "sbm_after_subsurfaceflow")
+        model = BMI.update(model; run = "sbm_after_subsurfaceflow")
 
         @testset "SBM after subsurface flow" begin
             sbm = model.vertical
             sub = model.lateral.subsurface
-            @test sbm.interception[1] ≈ 0.32734913737568716f0
-            @test sbm.ustorelayerdepth[1][1] ≈ 0.0f0
-            @test sbm.snow[1] ≈ 3.4847899611762876f0
-            @test sbm.recharge[5] ≈ 0.0f0
-            @test sbm.zi[5] ≈ 250.0f0
+            @test sbm.interception.variables.interception_rate[1] ≈ 0.32734913737568716f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.ustorelayerdepth[1][1] ≈ 0.0f0
+            @test sbm.snow.variables.snow_storage[1] ≈ 3.4847899611762876f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.recharge[5] ≈ 0.0f0
+            @test sbm.soil.variables.zi[5] ≈ 250.0f0
             @test sub.zi[5] ≈ 0.25f0
             @test sub.exfiltwater[1] ≈ 1.0f-5
             @test sub.ssf[1] ≈ 0.0f0
@@ -190,17 +198,15 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
 
         BMI.finalize(model)
     end
-
 end
 
 @testset "BMI extension functions" begin
-
     model = BMI.initialize(Wflow.Model, tomlpath)
     @test Wflow.get_start_unix_time(model) == 9.466848e8
-    satwaterdepth = mean(model.vertical.satwaterdepth)
+    satwaterdepth = mean(model.vertical.soil.variables.satwaterdepth)
     model.config.model.reinit = false
     model = Wflow.load_state(model)
-    @test satwaterdepth ≠ mean(model.vertical.satwaterdepth)
+    @test satwaterdepth ≠ mean(model.vertical.soil.variables.satwaterdepth)
     @test_logs (
         :info,
         "Write output states to netCDF file `$(model.writer.state_nc_path)`.",
diff --git a/test/flextopo_config.toml b/test/flextopo_config.toml
deleted file mode 100644
index aba6659af..000000000
--- a/test/flextopo_config.toml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,523 +0,0 @@
-casename = "wflow_meuse"
-calendar = "proleptic_gregorian"
-starttime = "2009-12-31T00:00:00"
-endtime = "2010-07-01T00:00:00"
-time_units = "days since 1900-01-01 00:00:00"
-timestepsecs = 86400
-dir_input = "data/input"
-dir_output = "data/output"
-loglevel = "info"
-
-[state]
-path_input = "instates.nc"
-path_output = "outstates-meuse.nc"
-
-[input]
-path_forcing = "forcing_meuse.nc"
-path_static = "staticmaps_flex_meuse.nc"
-gauges = "wflow_gauges"
-ldd = "wflow_ldd"
-river_location = "wflow_river"
-subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
-forcing = [ "vertical.precipitation", "vertical.temperature", "vertical.potential_evaporation",]
-#cyclic = [ "vertical.leaf_area_index",]
-gauges_grdc = "wflow_gauges_grdc"
-gauges_S01 = "wflow_gauges_S01"
-gauges_S02 = "wflow_gauges_S02"
-gauges_S03 = "wflow_gauges_S03"
-gauges_S04 = "wflow_gauges_S04"
-gauges_S05 = "wflow_gauges_S05"
-gauges_S06 = "wflow_gauges_S06"
-gauges_Sall = "wflow_gauges_Sall"
-
-sub_S01 = "wflow_subcatch_S01"
-sub_S02 = "wflow_subcatch_S02"
-sub_S03 = "wflow_subcatch_S03"
-sub_S04 = "wflow_subcatch_S04"
-sub_S05 = "wflow_subcatch_S05"
-sub_S06 = "wflow_subcatch_S06"
-sub_Sall = "wflow_subcatch_Sall"
-
-[model]
-type = "flextopo"
-masswasting = true
-snow = true
-reinit = true
-reservoirs = false
-lakes = false
-glacier = false
-kin_wave_iteration = true
-kw_river_tstep = 900
-kw_land_tstep = 3600
-classes = ["h", "p", "w"]
-
-
-select_snow = ["common_snow_hbv"]
-select_interception = ["interception_overflow", "interception_overflow", "interception_overflow"]
-select_hortonponding = ["hortonponding_no_storage", "hortonponding_no_storage", "hortonponding_no_storage"]
-select_hortonrunoff = ["hortonrunoff_no_storage", "hortonrunoff_no_storage", "hortonrunoff_no_storage"]
-select_rootzone = ["rootzone_storage", "rootzone_storage", "rootzone_storage"]
-select_fast = ["fast_storage", "fast_storage", "fast_storage"]
-select_slow = ["common_slow_storage"]
-
-[input.vertical]
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
-potential_evaporation = "PET"
-precipitation = "P"
-temperature = "TEMP"
-tt = "tth"
-ttm = "tmh"
-cfmax = "fmh"
-whc = "WHC"
-#alfa = "alfa"
-beta = "beta"
-cap = "cap"
-#ds = "d"
-fdec = "decf"
-fmax = "fmax"
-imax = "imax"
-#kf = "kf"
-#ks = "ksh"
-#lp = "lp"
-perc = "perc"
-srmax = "sumax"
-hrufrac = "hrufrac_lu"
-
-[input.vertical.lp]
-netcdf.variable.name = "lp"
-scale = [0.4, 0.4, 0.4]
-offset = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
-class = ["h", "p", "w"]
-
-[input.vertical.ds]
-netcdf.variable.name = "d"
-scale = [1.2, 1.2, 1.0]
-offset = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
-class = ["h", "p", "w"]
-
-[input.vertical.kf]
-netcdf.variable.name = "kf"
-scale = [1.0, 3.0, 3.0]
-offset = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
-class = ["h", "p", "w"]
-
-[input.vertical.alfa]
-netcdf.variable.name = "alfa"
-scale = 1.3
-offset = 0
-class = "p"
-
-[input.vertical.ks]
-netcdf.variable.name = "ksh"
-scale = 0.5
-offset = 0.0
-
-
-[input.lateral.river]
-length = "wflow_riverlength"
-#n = "N_River"
-n = "n_river_uniform"
-slope = "RiverSlope"
-width = "wflow_riverwidth"
-bankfull_depth = "RiverDepth"
-
-[input.lateral.land]
-#n = "N"
-n = "n_uniform"
-slope = "Slope"
-
-[input.lateral.river.reservoir]
-area = "ResSimpleArea"
-areas = "wflow_reservoirareas"
-demand = "ResDemand"
-locs = "wflow_reservoirlocs"
-maxrelease = "ResMaxRelease"
-maxvolume = "ResMaxVolume"
-targetfullfrac = "ResTargetFullFrac"
-targetminfrac = "ResTargetMinFrac"
-
-[state.lateral.river.reservoir]
-#volume = "volume_reservoir"
-
-[state.vertical]
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-interceptionstorage = "interceptionstorage"
-hortonpondingstorage = "hortonpondingstorage"
-hortonrunoffstorage = "hortonrunoffstorage"
-rootzonestorage = "rootzonestorage"
-faststorage = "faststorage"
-slowstorage = "slowstorage"
-
-
-[state.lateral.river]
-q = "q_river"
-h = "h_river"
-h_av = "h_av_river"
-
-
-[state.lateral.land]
-q = "q_land"
-h = "h_land"
-h_av = "h_av_land"
-
-
-[output]
-path = "output-flex-meuse.nc"
-
-[output.vertical]
-#precipitation = "prec"
-#temperature = "temp"
-#potential_evaporation = "pet"
-faststorage = "faststorage"
-
-
-[output.lateral.river]
-q_av = "q_river"
-#h = "h_river"
-
-
-[output.lateral.land]
-#q = "q_land"
-#h = "h_land"
-
-
-[csv]
-path = "output-flex-meuse.csv"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Q"
-map = "gauges"
-parameter = "lateral.river.q_av"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Q"
-map = "gauges_grdc"
-parameter = "lateral.river.q_av"
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Q"
-map = "gauges_Sall"
-parameter = "lateral.river.q_av"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "H"
-map = "gauges_Sall"
-parameter = "lateral.river.h_av"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "P"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.precipitation"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Ep"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.potential_evaporation"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "T"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Ea"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.actevap_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Ei"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.intevap_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Er"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.rootevap_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Eh"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hortonevap_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sw"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.snow"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sww"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.snowwater"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Si"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.interceptionstorage_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sr"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.srootzone_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sh"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hortonpondingstorage_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Shf"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hortonrunoffstorage_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sf"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.faststorage_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Ss"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.slowstorage"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sr_over_srmax_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.srootzone_over_srmax"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Sr_over_srmax_m"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.srootzone_over_srmax_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qftotal"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast_tot"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qh"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qhortonpond"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qhf"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qhortonrun"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qs"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.qslow"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qs"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qslow"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Qcap"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qcapillary_m"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfP"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfW"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "w"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfH"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "h"
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageP"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageW"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "w"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageH"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "h"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageP"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageW"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "w"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "percentageH"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.hrufrac"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "h"
-
-
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfP"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfW"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "w"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "QfH"
-map = "sub_S01"
-parameter = "vertical.qfast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "h"
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "kfP"
-map = "sub_Sall"
-parameter = "vertical.kf"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "kfW"
-map = "sub_Sall"
-parameter = "vertical.kf"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "w"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "kfH"
-map = "sub_Sall"
-parameter = "vertical.kf"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "h"
-
-
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbtot"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_tot"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbSi_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_interception"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbShf_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_hortonrunoff"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbSh_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_hortonponding"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbSr_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_rootzone"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbSf_p"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_fast"
-reducer = "mean"
-class = "p"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "wbSs"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "vertical.wb_slow"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "to_river_land"
-map = "gauges_S06"
-parameter = "lateral.land.to_river"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "land_inwater"
-map = "sub_S06"
-parameter = "lateral.land.inwater"
-reducer = "mean"
-
-
diff --git a/test/groundwater.jl b/test/groundwater.jl
index 5a59a3e20..def5ce7e5 100644
--- a/test/groundwater.jl
+++ b/test/groundwater.jl
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 
 function initial_head(x)
-    2 * √x
+    return 2 * √x
 end
 
 """
@@ -10,12 +10,11 @@ Non-steady flow in an unconfined rectangular aquifer, with Dirichlet h(0, t) = 0
 on the left edge, and a Neumann Boundary Condition (dh/dx = 0) on the right.
 """
 function transient_aquifer_1d(x, time, conductivity, specific_yield, aquifer_length, beta)
-    initial_head(x) / 1.0 +
-    (beta * conductivity * initial_head(aquifer_length) * time) /
-    (specific_yield * aquifer_length * aquifer_length)
+    return initial_head(x) / 1.0 +
+           (beta * conductivity * initial_head(aquifer_length) * time) /
+           (specific_yield * aquifer_length * aquifer_length)
 end
 
-
 """
     drawdown_theis(distance, time, discharge, transmissivity, storativity)
 
@@ -26,7 +25,6 @@ function drawdown_theis(distance, time, discharge, transmissivity, storativity)
     return discharge / (4 * pi * transmissivity) * expint(u)
 end
 
-
 function homogenous_aquifer(nrow, ncol)
     shape = (nrow, ncol)
     # Domain, geometry
@@ -62,7 +60,6 @@ function homogenous_aquifer(nrow, ncol)
     return (connectivity, conf_aqf, unconf_aqf)
 end
 
-
 @testset "groundwater" begin
     ncol = 2
     nrow = 3
@@ -343,19 +340,19 @@ end
         connectivity, aquifer, _ = homogenous_aquifer(3, 1)
         constanthead = Wflow.ConstantHead([2.0, 4.0], [1, 3])
         conductivity_profile = "uniform"
-        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow(
-            aquifer,
-            connectivity,
-            constanthead,
-            Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
+        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow{Wflow.Float}(;
+            aquifer = aquifer,
+            connectivity = connectivity,
+            constanthead = constanthead,
+            boundaries = Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
         )
         # Set constant head (dirichlet) boundaries
         gwf.aquifer.head[gwf.constanthead.index] .= gwf.constanthead.head
 
         Q = zeros(3)
         dt = 0.25 # days
-        for _ = 1:50
-            Wflow.update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+        for _ in 1:50
+            Wflow.update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
         end
 
         @test gwf.aquifer.head ≈ [2.0, 3.0, 4.0]
@@ -365,19 +362,19 @@ end
         connectivity, aquifer, _ = homogenous_aquifer(3, 1)
         constanthead = Wflow.ConstantHead([2.0, 4.0], [1, 3])
         conductivity_profile = "exponential"
-        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow(
-            aquifer,
-            connectivity,
-            constanthead,
-            Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
+        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow{Wflow.Float}(;
+            aquifer = aquifer,
+            connectivity = connectivity,
+            constanthead = constanthead,
+            boundaries = Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
         )
         # Set constant head (dirichlet) boundaries
         gwf.aquifer.head[gwf.constanthead.index] .= gwf.constanthead.head
 
         Q = zeros(3)
         dt = 0.25 # days
-        for _ = 1:50
-            Wflow.update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+        for _ in 1:50
+            Wflow.update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
         end
 
         @test gwf.aquifer.head ≈ [2.0, 3.0, 4.0]
@@ -404,7 +401,7 @@ end
         indices, reverse_indices = Wflow.active_indices(domain, false)
         connectivity = Wflow.Connectivity(indices, reverse_indices, dx, dy)
         ncell = connectivity.ncell
-        xc = collect(range(0.0, stop = aquifer_length - cellsize, step = cellsize))
+        xc = collect(range(0.0; stop = aquifer_length - cellsize, step = cellsize))
         aquifer = Wflow.UnconfinedAquifer(
             initial_head.(xc),
             fill(conductivity, ncell),
@@ -418,11 +415,11 @@ end
         )
         # constant head on left boundary, 0 at 0
         constanthead = Wflow.ConstantHead([0.0], [1])
-        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow(
-            aquifer,
-            connectivity,
-            constanthead,
-            Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
+        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow{Wflow.Float}(;
+            aquifer = aquifer,
+            connectivity = connectivity,
+            constanthead = constanthead,
+            boundaries = Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
         )
 
         dt = Wflow.stable_timestep(gwf.aquifer, conductivity_profile)
@@ -431,8 +428,8 @@ end
         nstep = Int(ceil(time / dt))
         time = nstep * dt
 
-        for i = 1:nstep
-            Wflow.update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+        for i in 1:nstep
+            Wflow.update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
             # Gradient dh/dx is positive, all flow to the left
             @test all(diff(gwf.aquifer.head) .> 0.0)
         end
@@ -472,7 +469,7 @@ end
         indices, reverse_indices = Wflow.active_indices(domain, false)
         connectivity = Wflow.Connectivity(indices, reverse_indices, dx, dy)
         ncell = connectivity.ncell
-        xc = collect(range(0.0, stop = aquifer_length - cellsize, step = cellsize))
+        xc = collect(range(0.0; stop = aquifer_length - cellsize, step = cellsize))
         aquifer = Wflow.UnconfinedAquifer(
             initial_head.(xc),
             fill(conductivity, ncell),
@@ -486,11 +483,11 @@ end
         )
         # constant head on left boundary, 0 at 0
         constanthead = Wflow.ConstantHead([0.0], [1])
-        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow(
-            aquifer,
-            connectivity,
-            constanthead,
-            Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
+        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow{Wflow.Float}(;
+            aquifer = aquifer,
+            connectivity = connectivity,
+            constanthead = constanthead,
+            boundaries = Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[],
         )
 
         dt = Wflow.stable_timestep(gwf.aquifer, conductivity_profile)
@@ -499,8 +496,8 @@ end
         nstep = Int(ceil(time / dt))
         time = nstep * dt
 
-        for i = 1:nstep
-            Wflow.update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+        for i in 1:nstep
+            Wflow.update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
             # Gradient dh/dx is positive, all flow to the left
             @test all(diff(gwf.aquifer.head) .> 0.0)
         end
@@ -556,12 +553,17 @@ end
             fill(0.0, ncell), # total volume that can be released, to be set
         )
 
-        cell_index = reshape(collect(range(1, ncell, step = 1)), shape)
+        cell_index = reshape(collect(range(1, ncell; step = 1)), shape)
         indices = vcat(cell_index[1, :], cell_index[end, :])# , cell_index[:, 1], cell_index[:, end],)
         constanthead = Wflow.ConstantHead(fill(10.0, size(indices)), indices)
         # Place a well in the middle of the domain
         well = Wflow.Well([discharge], [0.0], [reverse_indices[wellrow, wellrow]])
-        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow(aquifer, connectivity, constanthead, [well])
+        gwf = Wflow.GroundwaterFlow{Wflow.Float}(;
+            aquifer = aquifer,
+            connectivity = connectivity,
+            constanthead = constanthead,
+            boundaries = Wflow.AquiferBoundaryCondition[well],
+        )
 
         dt = Wflow.stable_timestep(gwf.aquifer, conductivity_profile)
         Q = zeros(ncell)
@@ -569,24 +571,23 @@ end
         nstep = Int(ceil(time / dt))
         time = nstep * dt
 
-        for i = 1:nstep
-            Wflow.update(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
+        for i in 1:nstep
+            Wflow.update!(gwf, Q, dt, conductivity_profile)
         end
 
         # test for symmetry on x and y axes
         head = reshape(gwf.aquifer.head, shape)
-        @test head[1:halfnrow, :] ≈ head[end:-1:halfnrow+2, :]
-        @test head[:, 1:halfnrow] ≈ head[:, end:-1:halfnrow+2]
+        @test head[1:halfnrow, :] ≈ head[end:-1:(halfnrow + 2), :]
+        @test head[:, 1:halfnrow] ≈ head[:, end:-1:(halfnrow + 2)]
 
         # compare with analytical solution
         start = -0.5 * aquifer_length + 0.5 * cellsize
         stop = 0.5 * aquifer_length - 0.5 * cellsize
-        X = collect(range(start, stop = stop, step = cellsize))
+        X = collect(range(start; stop = stop, step = cellsize))
         head_analytical =
             [drawdown_theis(x, time, discharge, transmissivity, storativity) for x in X] .+ 10.0
         # compare left-side, since it's symmetric anyway. Skip the well cell, and its first neighbor
-        difference = head[1:halfnrow-1, halfnrow] - head_analytical[1:halfnrow-1]
+        difference = head[1:(halfnrow - 1), halfnrow] - head_analytical[1:(halfnrow - 1)]
         @test all(difference .< 0.02)
     end
-
 end
diff --git a/test/hbv_config.toml b/test/hbv_config.toml
deleted file mode 100644
index 1a6a584b5..000000000
--- a/test/hbv_config.toml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,137 +0,0 @@
-# This is a TOML configuration file for Wflow.
-# Relative file paths are interpreted as being relative to this TOML file.
-# Wflow documentation https://deltares.github.io/Wflow.jl/dev/
-# TOML documentation: https://github.com/toml-lang/toml
-
-calendar = "proleptic_gregorian"
-endtime = 2000-02-01T00:00:00
-starttime = 1999-12-31T00:00:00
-time_units = "days since 1900-01-01 00:00:00"
-timestepsecs = 86400
-
-[state]
-path_input = "data/input/instates-lahn.nc"
-path_output = "data/output/outstates-lahn.nc"
-
-# if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
-# if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
-
-[state.vertical]
-interceptionstorage = "interceptionstorage"
-lowerzonestorage = "lowerzonestorage"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-soilmoisture = "soilmoisture"
-upperzonestorage = "upperzonestorage"
-
-[state.lateral.river]
-h = "h_river"
-q = "q_river"
-
-[state.lateral.land]
-h = "h_land"
-q = "q_land"
-
-[input]
-path_forcing = "data/input/forcing-lahn.nc"
-path_static = "data/input/staticmaps-lahn.nc"
-
-# these are not directly part of the model
-gauges = "wflow_gauges"
-ldd = "wflow_ldd"
-river_location = "wflow_river"
-subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
-
-# specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
-# the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
-forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
-]
-
-[input.vertical]
-alphanl = "AlphaNL"
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
-betaseepage = "BetaSeepage"
-cevpf = "CEVPF"
-cflux = "Cflux"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-cfr = "CFR"
-epf = "EPF"
-fc = "FC"
-hq = "HQ"
-icf = "ICF"
-k4 = "K4"
-khq = "KHQ"
-lp = "LP"
-perc = "PERC"
-potential_evaporation = "PET"
-precipitation = "P"
-sfcf = "SFCF"
-temperature = "TEMP"
-tt = "TT"
-tti = "TTI"
-ttm = "TTM"
-whc = "WHC"
-
-[input.lateral.river]
-length = "wflow_riverlength"
-n = "N_River"
-slope = "RiverSlope"
-width = "wflow_riverwidth"
-
-[input.lateral.land]
-n = "N"
-slope = "Slope"
-
-[model]
-kin_wave_iteration = true
-masswasting = true
-reinit = true
-snow = true
-type = "hbv"
-
-[output]
-path = "data/output/output_lahn.nc"
-
-[output.vertical]
-lowerzonestorage = "lowerzonestorage"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-soilmoisture = "soilmoisture"
-upperzonestorage = "upperzonestorage"
-
-[output.lateral.river]
-q = "q"
-
-[csv]
-path = "data/output/output_lahn.csv"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Q"
-parameter = "lateral.river.q"
-reducer = "maximum"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-coordinate.x = 8.279
-coordinate.y = 50.534
-header = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "temp_byindex"
-index.x = 88
-index.y = 95
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "Q"
-map = "gauges"
-parameter = "lateral.river.q"
-
-[[csv.column]]
-header = "perc"
-map = "subcatchment"
-parameter = "vertical.perc"
-reducer = "mean"
diff --git a/test/horizontal_process.jl b/test/horizontal_process.jl
index eb3c96763..7cb8bc780 100644
--- a/test/horizontal_process.jl
+++ b/test/horizontal_process.jl
@@ -41,11 +41,12 @@ Q = Wflow.kin_wave!(Q, graph, toposort, Qold, q, alpha, beta, DCL, dt_sec)
 @testset "flow rate" begin
     @test sum(Q) ≈ 2.957806043289641e6
     @test Q[toposort[1]] ≈ 0.007260052312634069f0
-    @test Q[toposort[n-100]] ≈ 3945.762718338739f0
+    @test Q[toposort[n - 100]] ≈ 3945.762718338739f0
     @test Q[sink] ≈ 4131.101474418251
 end
 
 @testset "kinematic wave subsurface flow" begin
+    kh_profile = Wflow.KhExponential([18021.0], [0.0017669756])
     @test all(
         isapprox.(
             Wflow.kinematic_wave_ssf(
@@ -53,17 +54,15 @@ end
                 215395179156.82645,
                 1540.34273559,
                 1.238,
-                18021.0,
                 0.25,
                 0.346,
-                0.0017669756,
                 1800.0,
                 1.0,
                 1697.05 * 1000.0,
                 1200.0 * 1000.0,
                 2443723.716252628,
-                1.0,
-                "exponential",
+                kh_profile,
+                1,
             ),
             (7.410313985168225e10, 1540.1496836278836, -0.0),
         ),
@@ -114,7 +113,6 @@ end
 end
 
 @testset "local inertial long channel MacDonald (1997)" begin
-
     g = 9.80665
     L = 1000.0
     dx = 5.0
@@ -135,11 +133,11 @@ end
     h_a = h.([dx:dx:L;]) # water depth profile (analytical solution)
     # integrate slope to get elevation (bed level) z
     x = [dx:dx:L;]
-    zb = first.([quadgk(s, xi, L, rtol = 1e-12) for xi in x])
+    zb = first.([quadgk(s, xi, L; rtol = 1e-12) for xi in x])
 
     # initialize ShallowWaterRiver
     graph = DiGraph(n)
-    for i = 1:n
+    for i in 1:n
         add_edge!(graph, i, i + 1)
     end
 
@@ -156,7 +154,7 @@ end
     width_at_link = fill(0.0, _ne)
     length_at_link = fill(0.0, _ne)
     mannings_n_sq = fill(0.0, _ne)
-    for i = 1:_ne
+    for i in 1:_ne
         zb_max[i] = max(zb[nodes_at_link.src[i]], zb[nodes_at_link.dst[i]])
         width_at_link[i] = min(width[nodes_at_link.dst[i]], width[nodes_at_link.src[i]])
         length_at_link[i] = 0.5 * (dl[nodes_at_link.dst[i]] + dl[nodes_at_link.src[i]])
@@ -168,7 +166,6 @@ end
         mannings_n_sq[i] = mannings_n * mannings_n
     end
 
-
     network = (
         nodes_at_link = nodes_at_link,
         links_at_node = Wflow.adjacent_links_at_node(graph, nodes_at_link),
@@ -181,10 +178,10 @@ end
     h_init = zeros(n - 1)
     push!(h_init, h_a[n])
 
-    sw_river = Wflow.ShallowWaterRiver(
+    sw_river = Wflow.ShallowWaterRiver(;
         n = n,
         ne = _ne,
-        active_n = collect(1:n-1),
+        active_n = collect(1:(n - 1)),
         active_e = collect(1:_ne),
         g = 9.80665,
         alpha = alpha,
@@ -234,7 +231,7 @@ end
         sw_river.inwater[1] = 20.0
         h0 = mean(sw_river.h)
         dt = Wflow.stable_timestep(sw_river)
-        Wflow.shallowwater_river_update(sw_river, network, dt, 0.0, true)
+        Wflow.shallowwater_river_update!(sw_river, network, dt, 0.0, true)
         d = abs(h0 - mean(sw_river.h))
         if d <= epsilon
             break
@@ -243,5 +240,4 @@ end
 
     # test for mean absolute error [cm]
     @test mean(abs.(sw_river.h .- h_a)) * 100.0 ≈ 1.873574206931199
-
 end
diff --git a/test/io.jl b/test/io.jl
index 25e142de3..a5700b10a 100644
--- a/test/io.jl
+++ b/test/io.jl
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ parsed_toml = TOML.parsefile(tomlpath)
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 
 @testset "configuration file" begin
-    @test parsed_toml isa Dict{String,Any}
+    @test parsed_toml isa Dict{String, Any}
     @test config isa Wflow.Config
     @test Dict(config) == parsed_toml
     @test pathof(config) == tomlpath
@@ -24,15 +24,25 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
     @test collect(keys(config.output)) == ["lateral", "vertical", "path"]
 
     # theta_s can also be provided under the alias theta_s
-    @test Wflow.get_alias(config.input.vertical, "theta_s", "theta_s", nothing) == "thetaS"
-    val = pop!(config.input.vertical, "theta_s")
-    config.input.vertical["theta_s"] = val
-    @test Wflow.get_alias(config.input.vertical, "theta_s", "theta_s", nothing) == "thetaS"
+    @test Wflow.get_alias(
+        config.input.vertical.soil.parameters,
+        "theta_s",
+        "theta_s",
+        nothing,
+    ) == "thetaS"
+    val = pop!(config.input.vertical.soil.parameters, "theta_s")
+    config.input.vertical.soil.parameters["theta_s"] = val
+    @test Wflow.get_alias(
+        config.input.vertical.soil.parameters,
+        "theta_s",
+        "theta_s",
+        nothing,
+    ) == "thetaS"
 
     # modifiers can also be applied
-    kvconf = Wflow.get_alias(config.input.vertical, "kv_0", "kv_0", nothing)
+    kvconf = Wflow.get_alias(config.input.vertical.soil.parameters, "kv_0", "kv_0", nothing)
     @test kvconf isa Wflow.Config
-    ncname, modifier = Wflow.ncvar_name_modifier(kvconf, config = config)
+    ncname, modifier = Wflow.ncvar_name_modifier(kvconf; config = config)
     @test ncname === "KsatVer"
     @test modifier.scale == 1.0
     @test modifier.offset == 0.0
@@ -46,14 +56,6 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
           joinpath(@__DIR__, "data", "input", "instates-moselle.nc")
     @test Wflow.output_path(config, config.state.path_output) ==
           joinpath(@__DIR__, "data", "output", "outstates-moselle.nc")
-    # hbv_config doesn't use dir_input and dir_output
-    hbv_config = Wflow.Config(joinpath(@__DIR__, "hbv_config.toml"))
-    @test !haskey(hbv_config, "dir_input")
-    @test !haskey(hbv_config, "dir_output")
-    @test Wflow.input_path(hbv_config, hbv_config.state.path_input) ==
-          joinpath(@__DIR__, "data", "input", "instates-lahn.nc")
-    @test Wflow.output_path(hbv_config, hbv_config.state.path_output) ==
-          joinpath(@__DIR__, "data", "output", "outstates-lahn.nc")
 end
 
 @testset "Clock constructor" begin
@@ -212,13 +214,15 @@ end
 
 @testset "warm states" begin
     @test Wflow.param(model, "lateral.river.reservoir.volume")[1] ≈ 3.2807224993363418e7
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.satwaterdepth")[9115] ≈ 477.13548089422125
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.snow")[5] ≈ 11.019233179897599
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.tsoil")[5] ≈ 0.21814478119608938
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.ustorelayerdepth")[50063][1] ≈ 9.969116007201725
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.snowwater")[5] ≈ 0.0
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.canopystorage")[50063] ≈ 0.0
-    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.zi")[50063] ≈ 296.8028609104624
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.soil.variables.satwaterdepth")[9115] ≈
+          477.13548089422125
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.snow.variables.snow_storage")[5] ≈ 11.019233179897599
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.soil.variables.tsoil")[5] ≈ 0.21814478119608938
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.soil.variables.ustorelayerdepth")[50063][1] ≈
+          9.969116007201725
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.snow.variables.snow_water")[5] ≈ 0.0
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.interception.variables.canopy_storage")[50063] ≈ 0.0
+    @test Wflow.param(model, "vertical.soil.variables.zi")[50063] ≈ 296.8028609104624
     @test Wflow.param(model, "lateral.subsurface.ssf")[10606] ≈ 39.972334552895816
     @test Wflow.param(model, "lateral.river.q")[149] ≈ 53.48673634956338
     @test Wflow.param(model, "lateral.river.h")[149] ≈ 1.167635369628945
@@ -252,22 +256,22 @@ end
 
 @testset "initial parameter values" begin
     (; vertical) = model
-    @test vertical.cfmax[1] ≈ 3.7565300464630127
-    @test vertical.soilthickness[1] ≈ 2000.0
-    @test vertical.precipitation[49951] ≈ 2.2100000381469727
-    @test vertical.c[1] ≈
+    @test vertical.snow.parameters.cfmax[1] ≈ 3.7565300464630127
+    @test vertical.soil.parameters.soilthickness[1] ≈ 2000.0
+    @test vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation[49951] ≈ 2.2100000381469727
+    @test vertical.soil.parameters.c[1] ≈
           [9.152995289601465, 8.919674421902961, 8.70537452585209, 8.690681062890977]
 end
 
-config.input.vertical.cfmax = Dict("value" => 2.0)
-config.input.vertical.soilthickness = Dict(
+config.input.vertical.snow.parameters.cfmax = Dict("value" => 2.0)
+config.input.vertical.soil.parameters.soilthickness = Dict(
     "scale" => 3.0,
     "offset" => 100.0,
     "netcdf" => Dict("variable" => Dict("name" => "SoilThickness")),
 )
-config.input.vertical.precipitation =
+config.input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation =
     Dict("scale" => 1.5, "netcdf" => Dict("variable" => Dict("name" => "precip")))
-config.input.vertical.c = Dict(
+config.input.vertical.soil.parameters.c = Dict(
     "scale" => [2.0, 3.0],
     "offset" => [0.0, 0.0],
     "layer" => [1, 3],
@@ -280,10 +284,10 @@ Wflow.load_dynamic_input!(model)
 
 @testset "changed parameter values" begin
     (; vertical) = model
-    @test vertical.cfmax[1] == 2.0
-    @test vertical.soilthickness[1] ≈ 2000.0 * 3.0 + 100.0
-    @test vertical.precipitation[49951] ≈ 1.5 * 2.2100000381469727
-    @test vertical.c[1] ≈ [
+    @test vertical.snow.parameters.cfmax[1] == 2.0
+    @test vertical.soil.parameters.soilthickness[1] ≈ 2000.0 * 3.0 + 100.0
+    @test vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation[49951] ≈ 1.5 * 2.2100000381469727
+    @test vertical.soil.parameters.c[1] ≈ [
         2.0 * 9.152995289601465,
         8.919674421902961,
         3.0 * 8.70537452585209,
@@ -291,7 +295,7 @@ Wflow.load_dynamic_input!(model)
     ]
 end
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 @testset "NetCDF creation" begin
     path = Base.Filesystem.tempname()
@@ -303,7 +307,6 @@ end
 
 @testset "NetCDF read variants" begin
     NCDataset(staticmaps_moselle_path) do ds
-
         @test Wflow.is_increasing(ds[:lon])
         @test !Wflow.is_increasing(ds[:lat])
 
@@ -314,7 +317,7 @@ end
 
         x = collect(Wflow.nc_dim(ds, :lon))
         @test length(x) == 291
-        @test x isa Vector{Union{Missing,Float64}}
+        @test x isa Vector{Union{Missing, Float64}}
 
         @test Wflow.internal_dim_name(:lon) == :x
         @test Wflow.internal_dim_name(:latitude) == :y
@@ -323,7 +326,7 @@ end
         @test_throws ArgumentError Wflow.read_dims(ds["c"], (x = :, y = :))
         @test_throws ArgumentError Wflow.read_dims(ds["LAI"], (x = :, y = :))
         data, data_dim_order = Wflow.read_dims(ds["wflow_dem"], (x = :, y = :))
-        @test data isa Matrix{Union{Float32,Missing}}
+        @test data isa Matrix{Union{Float32, Missing}}
         @test data[end, end] === missing
         @test data[125, 1] ≈ 647.187f0
         @test data_dim_order == (:x, :y)
@@ -447,9 +450,9 @@ end
 
     # Extracting required states and test if some are covered (not all are tested!)
     required_states = Wflow.extract_required_states(config)
-    @test (:vertical, :satwaterdepth) in required_states
-    @test (:vertical, :ustorelayerdepth) in required_states
-    @test (:vertical, :canopystorage) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :soil, :variables, :satwaterdepth) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :soil, :variables, :ustorelayerdepth) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :interception, :variables, :canopy_storage) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :subsurface, :ssf) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :river, :q) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :river, :h_av) in required_states
@@ -457,27 +460,27 @@ end
     @test !((:lateral, :river, :lake, :waterlevel) in required_states)
 
     # Adding an unused state the see if the right warning message is thrown
-    config.state.vertical.additional_state = "additional_state"
+    config.state.vertical.soil.variables.additional_state = "additional_state"
     @test_logs (
         :warn,
         string(
-            "State variable `(:vertical, :additional_state)` provided, but is not used in ",
+            "State variable `(:vertical, :soil, :variables, :additional_state)` provided, but is not used in ",
             "model setup, skipping.",
         ),
     ) Wflow.check_states(config)
 
     # Removing the unused and required state, to test the exception being thrown
-    delete!(config.state["vertical"], "additional_state")
-    delete!(config.state["vertical"], "snow")
+    delete!(config.state.vertical.soil["variables"], "additional_state")
+    delete!(config.state.vertical.snow["variables"], "snow_storage")
     @test_throws ArgumentError Wflow.check_states(config)
 
     # Extracting required states for model type sbm_gwf and test if some are covered
     tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_gwf_config.toml")
     config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
     required_states = Wflow.extract_required_states(config)
-    @test (:vertical, :satwaterdepth) in required_states
-    @test (:vertical, :ustorelayerdepth) in required_states
-    @test (:vertical, :canopystorage) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :soil, :variables, :satwaterdepth) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :soil, :variables, :ustorelayerdepth) in required_states
+    @test (:vertical, :interception, :variables, :canopy_storage) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :subsurface, :flow, :aquifer, :head) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :river, :q) in required_states
     @test (:lateral, :river, :h_av) in required_states
diff --git a/test/reservoir_lake.jl b/test/reservoir_lake.jl
index aec71a06e..261021927 100644
--- a/test/reservoir_lake.jl
+++ b/test/reservoir_lake.jl
@@ -1,24 +1,23 @@
-@testset "reservoir simple" begin
-    res = Wflow.SimpleReservoir{Float64}(
-        dt = 86400.0,
-        demand = [52.523],
-        maxrelease = [420.184],
-        maxvolume = [25_000_000.0],
-        volume = [1.925e7],
-        totaloutflow = [0.0],
-        inflow = [0.0],
-        area = [1885665.353626924],
-        targetfullfrac = [0.8],
-        targetminfrac = [0.2425554726620697],
-        precipitation = [4.2],
-        evaporation = [1.5],
-        actevap = [0.0],
-        outflow = [NaN],
-        percfull = [NaN],
-        demandrelease = [NaN],
-    )
-
-    Wflow.update(res, 1, 100.0, 86400.0)
+res = Wflow.SimpleReservoir{Float64}(;
+    dt = 86400.0,
+    demand = [52.523],
+    maxrelease = [420.184],
+    maxvolume = [25_000_000.0],
+    volume = [1.925e7],
+    totaloutflow = [0.0],
+    inflow = [0.0],
+    area = [1885665.353626924],
+    targetfullfrac = [0.8],
+    targetminfrac = [0.2425554726620697],
+    precipitation = [4.2],
+    evaporation = [1.5],
+    actevap = [0.0],
+    outflow = [NaN],
+    percfull = [NaN],
+    demandrelease = [NaN],
+)
+@testset "Update reservoir simple" begin
+    Wflow.update!(res, 1, 100.0, 86400.0)
     @test res.outflow[1] ≈ 91.3783714867453
     @test res.totaloutflow[1] ≈ 7.895091296454794e6
     @test res.volume[1] ≈ 2.0e7
@@ -29,31 +28,31 @@
     @test res.actevap[1] ≈ 1.5
 end
 
-@testset "lake" begin
-    lake = Wflow.Lake{Float64}(
-        dt = 86400.0,
-        lowerlake_ind = [0],
-        area = [180510409.0],
-        maxstorage = Wflow.maximum_storage([1], [3], [180510409.0], [missing], [missing]),
-        threshold = [0.0],
-        storfunc = [1],
-        outflowfunc = [3],
-        totaloutflow = [0.0],
-        inflow = [0.0],
-        b = [0.22],
-        e = [2.0],
-        sh = [missing],
-        hq = [missing],
-        storage = Wflow.initialize_storage([1], [180510409.0], [18.5], [missing]),
-        waterlevel = [18.5],
-        precipitation = [20.0],
-        evaporation = [3.2],
-        actevap = [0.0],
-        outflow = [NaN],
-    )
-
-    Wflow.update(lake, 1, 2500.0, 181, 86400.0)
-    @test Wflow.waterlevel(lake.storfunc, lake.area, lake.storage, lake.sh)[1] ≈ 19.672653848925634
+lake = Wflow.Lake{Float64}(;
+    dt = 86400.0,
+    lowerlake_ind = [0],
+    area = [180510409.0],
+    maxstorage = Wflow.maximum_storage([1], [3], [180510409.0], [missing], [missing]),
+    threshold = [0.0],
+    storfunc = [1],
+    outflowfunc = [3],
+    totaloutflow = [0.0],
+    inflow = [0.0],
+    b = [0.22],
+    e = [2.0],
+    sh = [missing],
+    hq = [missing],
+    storage = Wflow.initialize_storage([1], [180510409.0], [18.5], [missing]),
+    waterlevel = [18.5],
+    precipitation = [20.0],
+    evaporation = [3.2],
+    actevap = [0.0],
+    outflow = [NaN],
+)
+@testset "Update lake" begin
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 1, 2500.0, 181, 86400.0)
+    @test Wflow.waterlevel(lake.storfunc, lake.area, lake.storage, lake.sh)[1] ≈
+          19.672653848925634
     @test lake.outflow[1] ≈ 85.14292808113598
     @test lake.totaloutflow[1] ≈ 7.356348986210149e6
     @test lake.storage[1] ≈ 3.55111879238499e9
@@ -70,9 +69,9 @@ sh = [
 ]
 @testset "linked lakes (HBV)" begin
     @test keys(sh[1]) == (:H, :S)
-    @test typeof(values(sh[1])) == Tuple{Vector{Float},Vector{Float}}
+    @test typeof(values(sh[1])) == Tuple{Vector{Float}, Vector{Float}}
 
-    lake = Wflow.Lake{Float}(
+    lake = Wflow.Lake{Float}(;
         dt = 86400.0,
         lowerlake_ind = [2, 0],
         area = [472461536.0, 60851088.0],
@@ -105,8 +104,8 @@ sh = [
         ),
     )
 
-    Wflow.update(lake, 1, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
-    Wflow.update(lake, 2, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 1, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 2, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
     @test lake.outflow ≈ [214.80170846121263, 236.83281600000214] atol = 1e-2
     @test lake.totaloutflow ≈ [1.855886761104877e7, 2.0462355302400187e7] atol = 1e3
     @test lake.storage ≈ [1.2737435094769483e9, 2.6019755340159863e8] atol = 1e4
@@ -114,8 +113,8 @@ sh = [
     lake.actevap .= 0.0
     lake.totaloutflow .= 0.0
     lake.inflow .= 0.0
-    Wflow.update(lake, 1, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
-    Wflow.update(lake, 2, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 1, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 2, 500.0, 15, 86400.0)
     @test lake.outflow ≈ [0.0, 239.66710359986183] atol = 1e-2
     @test lake.totaloutflow ≈ [-2.2446764487487033e7, 4.3154002238515094e7] atol = 1e3
     @test lake.storage ≈ [1.3431699662524352e9, 2.6073035986708355e8] atol = 1e4
@@ -124,7 +123,7 @@ sh = [
 end
 
 @testset "overflowing lake with sh and hq" begin
-    lake = Wflow.Lake{Float}(
+    lake = Wflow.Lake{Float}(;
         dt = 86400.0,
         lowerlake_ind = [0],
         area = [200_000_000],
@@ -152,8 +151,9 @@ end
         storage = [410_760_000],
     )
 
-    Wflow.update(lake, 1, 1500.0, 15, 86400.0)
-    @test Wflow.waterlevel(lake.storfunc, lake.area, lake.storage, lake.sh) ≈ [398.0] atol = 1e-2
+    Wflow.update!(lake, 1, 1500.0, 15, 86400.0)
+    @test Wflow.waterlevel(lake.storfunc, lake.area, lake.storage, lake.sh) ≈ [398.0] atol =
+        1e-2
     @test lake.outflow ≈ [1303.67476852] atol = 1e-2
     @test lake.totaloutflow ≈ [11.26375000e7] atol = 1e3
     @test lake.storage ≈ [4.293225e8] atol = 1e4
diff --git a/test/run.jl b/test/run.jl
index 45cd79750..5f3237d06 100644
--- a/test/run.jl
+++ b/test/run.jl
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ config.state.path_output =
 config.output.path =
     joinpath(dirname(tomlpath), "data/state-test/output-moselle-january.nc")
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-Wflow.run(model)
+Wflow.run!(model)
 
 # first half of January, cold start
 config.starttime = DateTime("2000-01-01T00:00:00")
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ config.state.path_output =
 config.output.path =
     joinpath(dirname(tomlpath), "data/state-test/output-moselle-january-1of2.nc")
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-Wflow.run(model)
+Wflow.run!(model)
 
 # second half of January, warm start
 config.starttime = DateTime("2000-01-15T00:00:00")
@@ -41,8 +41,7 @@ config.state.path_output =
 config.output.path =
     joinpath(dirname(tomlpath), "data/state-test/output-moselle-january-2of2.nc")
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-Wflow.run(model)
-
+Wflow.run!(model)
 
 # second half of January, warm start, fews_run set to true, and starttime set one day earlier
 # to match endtime of part 1
@@ -59,7 +58,7 @@ config.state.path_output = joinpath(
 config.output.path =
     joinpath(dirname(tomlpath), "data/state-test/output-moselle-january-2of2-fews_run.nc")
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-Wflow.run(model)
+Wflow.run!(model)
 
 # verify that there are minimal differences in the end state of the two runs
 endstate_one_run_path =
diff --git a/test/run_flextopo.jl b/test/run_flextopo.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index 974fc085c..000000000
--- a/test/run_flextopo.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,116 +0,0 @@
-
-tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "flextopo_config.toml")
-config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
-
-model = Wflow.initialize_flextopo_model(config)
-(; network) = model
-
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-
-# test if the first timestep was written to the CSV file
-flush(model.writer.csv_io)  # ensure the buffer is written fully to disk
-@testset "CSV output" begin
-    row = csv_first_row(model.writer.csv_path)
-
-    @test row.time == DateTime("2010-01-01T00:00:00")
-    @test row.Q_16 ≈ 0.0000370817920883859f0
-    @test row.percentageH_16 ≈ 0.340213f0
-    @test row.QfP_1011 ≈ 0.0f0
-    @test row.kfW_10 ≈ 0.136334478855133f0
-    @test row.kfH_10 ≈ 0.0454448275268077f0
-    @test row.Qs_503 ≈ 0.1575031550601124f0
-    @test row.Si_16 ≈ 0.0f0
-    @test row.Ss_16 ≈ 29.89794354323524f0
-    @test row.Ea_16 ≈ 0.0110627892408438f0
-end
-
-@testset "first timestep" begin
-    flextopo = model.vertical
-    @test flextopo.tt[3500] ≈ 1.3f0
-    @test model.clock.iteration == 1
-    @test flextopo.rootzonestorage[3500] ≈
-          [147.11238663084805f0, 79.08369375691255f0, 79.23637697443984f0]
-    @test flextopo.runoff[3500] ≈ 0.19008129369467497f0
-    @test flextopo.rootevap[3500] ≈
-          [0.009225917980074883f0, 0.009225917980074883f0, 0.009225917980074883f0]
-    @test flextopo.snow[3500] == 0.0
-end
-
-# run the second timestep
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-
-@testset "second timestep" begin
-    flextopo = model.vertical
-    @test flextopo.rootzonestorage[3500] ≈
-          [146.73222385533154f0, 78.55190222246516f0, 78.85739340140256f0]
-    @test flextopo.runoff[3500] ≈ 0.18887692333975817f0
-    @test flextopo.rootevap[3500] ≈
-          [0.38016277551651f0, 0.38016277551651f0, 0.38016277551651f0]
-    @test flextopo.snow[3500] == 0.0f0
-end
-
-@testset "overland domain" begin
-    q = model.lateral.land.q_av
-    land = model.lateral.land
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 202.1162497378859f0
-    @test q[10354] ≈ 0.001624108000162103f0
-    @test land.volume[10354] ≈ 66.41398729880544f0
-    @test land.inwater[10354] ≈ 0.001658182220814705f0
-    @test q[network.land.order[end]] ≈ 0.0033337667005815565f0
-end
-
-@testset "river flow" begin
-    q = model.lateral.river.q_av
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 108.45732176546284f0
-    @test q[651] ≈ 0.014755293483684526f0
-    @test q[1056] ≈ 0.0030933658056867823f0
-    @test q[network.river.order[end]] ≈ 0.0005541137960384742f0
-end
-
-#change the config to use other functions for the storages for several classes:
-config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
-config["model"]["select_snow"] = ["common_snow_no_storage"]
-config["model"]["select_interception"] =
-    ["interception_no_storage", "interception_overflow", "interception_overflow"]
-config["model"]["select_hortonponding"] =
-    ["hortonponding_no_storage", "hortonponding", "hortonponding_no_storage"]
-config["model"]["select_hortonrunoff"] =
-    ["hortonrunoff_no_storage", "hortonrunoff", "hortonrunoff_no_storage"]
-config["model"]["select_rootzone"] =
-    ["rootzone_storage", "rootzone_storage", "rootzone_no_storage"]
-config["model"]["select_fast"] = ["fast_no_storage", "fast_storage", "fast_storage"]
-config["model"]["select_slow"] = ["common_slow_storage"]
-
-model = Wflow.initialize_flextopo_model(config)
-(; network) = model
-
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-
-@testset "first timestep" begin
-    flextopo = model.vertical
-    @test flextopo.rootzonestorage[3500] ≈
-          [147.11238663084805f0, 79.08369375691255f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test flextopo.runoff[3500] ≈ 0.19008129369467497f0
-    @test flextopo.rootevap[3500] ≈ [0.009225917980074883f0, 0.009225917980074883f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test flextopo.snow[3500] == 0.0f0
-end
-
-@testset "overland domain" begin
-    q = model.lateral.land.q_av
-    land = model.lateral.land
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 69.51434665542678f0
-    @test q[10354] ≈ 0.0009376627801121855f0
-    @test land.volume[10354] ≈ 63.46997463442048f0
-    @test land.inwater[10354] ≈ 0.0016722689680105701f0
-    @test q[network.land.order[end]] ≈ 0.0006175366185364747f0
-end
-
-@testset "river flow" begin
-    q = model.lateral.river.q_av
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 22.236556345676156f0
-    @test q[651] ≈ 0.00035906990499781237f0
-    @test q[1056] ≈ 0.0002647264689318855f0
-    @test q[network.river.order[end]] ≈ 0.000015647838277869928f0
-end
-
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
diff --git a/test/run_hbv.jl b/test/run_hbv.jl
deleted file mode 100644
index b0706f316..000000000
--- a/test/run_hbv.jl
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,66 +0,0 @@
-
-tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "hbv_config.toml")
-config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
-
-model = Wflow.initialize_hbv_model(config)
-(; network) = model
-
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-
-# test if the first timestep was written to the CSV file
-flush(model.writer.csv_io)  # ensure the buffer is written fully to disk
-@testset "CSV output" begin
-    row = csv_first_row(model.writer.csv_path)
-
-    @test row.time == DateTime("2000-01-01T00:00:00")
-    @test row.Q ≈ 521.8433822888003f0
-    @test row.temp_bycoord ≈ 2.965437173843384f0
-    @test row.temp_byindex ≈ 1.1716821193695068f0
-    @test row.Q_1 ≈ 505.1935875677504f0
-    @test row.perc_33 ≈ 2.308000087738037f0
-    @test row.perc_34 ≈ 1.8980000019073486f0
-    @test row.perc_35 ≈ 2.7100000381469727f0
-    @test row.perc_36 ≈ 3.818000078201294f0
-    @test row.perc_37 ≈ 2.1440000534057617f0
-end
-
-@testset "first timestep" begin
-    hbv = model.vertical
-    @test hbv.tt[4377] ≈ 0.0
-    @test model.clock.iteration == 1
-    @test hbv.soilmoisture[4377] ≈ 134.35299682617188f0
-    @test hbv.runoff[4377] ≈ 7.406898120121746f0
-    @test hbv.soilevap[4377] == 0.0
-    @test hbv.snow[4377] == 0.0
-end
-
-# run the second timestep
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-
-@testset "second timestep" begin
-    hbv = model.vertical
-    @test hbv.soilmoisture[4377] ≈ 134.35299682617188f0
-    @test hbv.runoff[4377] ≈ 4.3533463f0
-    @test hbv.soilevap[4377] == 0.0
-    @test hbv.snow[4377] == 0.0
-end
-
-@testset "overland domain" begin
-    q = model.lateral.land.q_av
-    land = model.lateral.land
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 3264.157286198723f0
-    @test q[10354] ≈ 0.2350958683414288f0
-    @test land.volume[10354] ≈ 2057.7314802432425f0
-    @test land.inwater[10354] ≈ 0.027351853491789667f0
-    @test q[network.land.order[end]] ≈ 0.27158713754634217f0
-end
-
-@testset "river flow" begin
-    q = model.lateral.river.q_av
-    @test sum(q) ≈ 52686.97949266187f0
-    @test q[651] ≈ 5.7624898709967125f0
-    @test q[1056] ≈ 8.892291220438524f0
-    @test q[network.river.order[end]] ≈ 360.40425076323913f0
-end
-
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
diff --git a/test/run_sbm.jl b/test/run_sbm.jl
index fe81c53ec..2d03bed96 100644
--- a/test/run_sbm.jl
+++ b/test/run_sbm.jl
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
 (; network) = model
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 # test if the first timestep was written to the CSV file
 flush(model.writer.csv_io)  # ensure the buffer is written fully to disk
@@ -69,47 +69,48 @@ end
 end
 
 @testset "first timestep" begin
-    sbm = model.vertical
-
-    @test sbm.tt[50063] ≈ 0.0f0
+    sbm = model.vertical.soil
+    snow = model.vertical.snow
+    @test snow.parameters.tt[50063] ≈ 0.0f0
 
     @test model.clock.iteration == 1
 
-    @test sbm.theta_s[50063] ≈ 0.48755401372909546f0
-    @test sbm.theta_r[50063] ≈ 0.15943120419979095f0
-    @test mean(sbm.runoff) ≈ 0.04177459898728149f0
-    @test mean(sbm.soilevap) ≈ 0.02122698830889417f0
-    @test mean(sbm.actevap) ≈ 0.3353001180202587f0
-    @test mean(sbm.actinfilt) ≈ 1.6444774688444848f0
-    @test sbm.snow[5] ≈ 3.768513390588815f0
-    @test mean(sbm.snow) ≈ 0.038019723676094325f0
-    @test sbm.total_storage[50063] ≈ 559.9035608052374f0
-    @test sbm.total_storage[429] ≈ 597.4578475404879f0 # river cell
+    @test sbm.parameters.theta_s[50063] ≈ 0.48755401372909546f0
+    @test sbm.parameters.theta_r[50063] ≈ 0.15943120419979095f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.runoff) ≈ 0.04177459898728149f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.soilevap) ≈ 0.02122698830889417f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.actevap) ≈ 0.3353001180202587f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.actinfilt) ≈ 1.6444774688444848f0
+    @test snow.variables.snow_storage[5] ≈ 3.768513390588815f0
+    @test mean(snow.variables.snow_storage) ≈ 0.038019723676094325f0
+    @test sbm.variables.total_storage[50063] ≈ 559.9035608052374f0
+    @test sbm.variables.total_storage[429] ≈ 597.4578475404879f0 # river cell
 end
 
 # run the second timestep
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "second timestep" begin
-    sbm = model.vertical
-    @test sbm.theta_s[50063] ≈ 0.48755401372909546f0
-    @test sbm.theta_r[50063] ≈ 0.15943120419979095f0
-    @test mean(sbm.net_runoff) ≈ 0.23734052031823816f0
-    @test mean(sbm.runoff) ≈ 0.23770898226019577f0
-    @test mean(sbm.soilevap) ≈ 0.018750808322054897f0
-    @test mean(sbm.actevap) ≈ 0.14545276216428166f0
-    @test mean(sbm.actinfilt) ≈ 0.08863102527394363f0
-    @test sbm.snow[5] ≈ 3.843412524052313f0
-    @test mean(sbm.snow) ≈ 0.03461317061870949f0
-    @test sbm.total_storage[50063] ≈ 560.0152135062889f0
-    @test sbm.total_storage[429] ≈ 617.2238533241972f0 # river cell
+    sbm = model.vertical.soil
+    snow = model.vertical.snow
+    @test sbm.parameters.theta_s[50063] ≈ 0.48755401372909546f0
+    @test sbm.parameters.theta_r[50063] ≈ 0.15943120419979095f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.net_runoff) ≈ 0.23734052031823816f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.runoff) ≈ 0.23770898226019577f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.soilevap) ≈ 0.018750808322054897f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.actevap) ≈ 0.14545276216428166f0
+    @test mean(sbm.variables.actinfilt) ≈ 0.08863102527394363f0
+    @test snow.variables.snow_storage[5] ≈ 3.843412524052313f0
+    @test mean(snow.variables.snow_storage) ≈ 0.03461317061870949f0
+    @test sbm.variables.total_storage[50063] ≈ 560.0152135062889f0
+    @test sbm.variables.total_storage[429] ≈ 617.2238533241972f0 # river cell
 end
 
 @testset "subsurface flow" begin
     ssf = model.lateral.subsurface.ssf
     @test sum(ssf) ≈ 6.3761585406186976f7
     @test ssf[network.land.order[1]] ≈ 718.2802566393531f0
-    @test ssf[network.land.order[end-100]] ≈ 2337.771227118579f0
+    @test ssf[network.land.order[end - 100]] ≈ 2337.771227118579f0
     @test ssf[network.land.order[end]] ≈ 288.19428729403984f0
 end
 
@@ -139,12 +140,12 @@ end
 end
 
 # set these variables for comparison in "changed dynamic parameters"
-precip = copy(model.vertical.precipitation)
-evap = copy(model.vertical.potential_evaporation)
-lai = copy(model.vertical.leaf_area_index)
+precip = copy(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation)
+evap = copy(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation)
+lai = copy(model.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index)
 res_evap = copy(model.lateral.river.reservoir.evaporation)
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test for setting a pit and multithreading multiple basins (by setting 2 extra pits
 # resulting in 3 basins)
@@ -176,26 +177,27 @@ end
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 
-config.input.vertical.precipitation =
+config.input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation =
     Dict("scale" => 2.0, "netcdf" => Dict("variable" => Dict("name" => "precip")))
-config.input.vertical.potential_evaporation = Dict(
+config.input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation = Dict(
     "scale" => 3.0,
     "offset" => 1.50,
     "netcdf" => Dict("variable" => Dict("name" => "pet")),
 )
-config.input.vertical.leaf_area_index =
+config.input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index =
     Dict("scale" => 1.6, "netcdf" => Dict("variable" => Dict("name" => "LAI")))
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "changed dynamic parameters" begin
     res = model.lateral.river.reservoir
     vertical = model.vertical
-    @test vertical.precipitation[2] / precip[2] ≈ 2.0f0
-    @test (vertical.potential_evaporation[100] - 1.50) / evap[100] ≈ 3.0f0
-    @test vertical.leaf_area_index[100] / lai[100] ≈ 1.6f0
+    @test vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation[2] / precip[2] ≈ 2.0f0
+    @test (vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation[100] - 1.50) / evap[100] ≈
+          3.0f0
+    @test vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index[100] / lai[100] ≈ 1.6f0
     @test (res.evaporation[2] - 1.50) / res_evap[2] ≈ 3.0000012203408635f0
 end
 
@@ -203,12 +205,13 @@ end
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 
-config.input.cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index", "lateral.river.inflow"]
+config.input.cyclic =
+    ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index", "lateral.river.inflow"]
 config.input.lateral.river.inflow = "inflow"
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river inflow (cyclic)" begin
     @test model.lateral.river.inflow[44] ≈ 0.75
@@ -217,25 +220,25 @@ end
 
 # test fixed forcing (precipitation = 2.5)
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
-config.input.vertical.precipitation = Dict("value" => 2.5)
+config.input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation = Dict("value" => 2.5)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-Wflow.load_fixed_forcing(model)
+Wflow.load_fixed_forcing!(model)
 
 @testset "fixed precipitation forcing (initialize)" begin
-    @test maximum(model.vertical.precipitation) ≈ 2.5
-    @test minimum(model.vertical.precipitation) ≈ 0.0
+    @test maximum(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation) ≈ 2.5
+    @test minimum(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation) ≈ 0.0
     @test all(isapprox.(model.lateral.river.reservoir.precipitation, 2.5))
 end
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "fixed precipitation forcing (first timestep)" begin
-    @test maximum(model.vertical.precipitation) ≈ 2.5
-    @test minimum(model.vertical.precipitation) ≈ 0.0
+    @test maximum(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation) ≈ 2.5
+    @test minimum(model.vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation) ≈ 0.0
     @test all(isapprox.(model.lateral.river.reservoir.precipitation, 2.5))
 end
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test local-inertial option for river flow river_routing
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
@@ -243,8 +246,8 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 config.model.river_routing = "local-inertial"
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river flow and depth (local inertial)" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -259,15 +262,15 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     q_channel = model.lateral.river.q_channel_av
     @test q ≈ q_channel
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test local-inertial option for river and overland flow
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_swf_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river and overland flow and depth (local inertial)" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -287,7 +290,8 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     @test h[[26, 35, 631]] ≈
           [0.07367301172613304f0, 0.009139882310161706f0, 0.0007482998926237368f0]
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test local-inertial option for river flow including 1D floodplain schematization
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
@@ -396,8 +400,8 @@ dh = diff(fp.depth)
     @test Wflow.wetted_perimeter(fp.p[i1, 4], fp.depth[i1], h) ≈ 90.11775307900271f0
 end
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river flow (local inertial) with floodplain schematization simulation" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -417,8 +421,8 @@ end
 config.input.lateral.river.riverlength_bc = "riverlength_bc"
 config.input.lateral.river.riverdepth_bc = "riverdepth_bc"
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "change boundary condition for local inertial routing (including floodplain)" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -433,110 +437,94 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     @test h[501] ≈ 0.056707564314724804f0
     @test h[5808] ≈ 2.0000006940603936f0
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test different ksat profiles
 @testset "ksat profiles (SBM)" begin
     i = 100
     tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_config.toml")
     config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
-    config.input.vertical.kv = "kv"
-    config.input.vertical.z_exp = Dict("value" => 400.0)
-    config.input.vertical.z_layered = Dict("value" => 400.0)
+    config.input.vertical.soil.parameters.kv = "kv"
+    config.input.vertical.soil.parameters.z_exp = Dict("value" => 400.0)
+    config.input.vertical.soil.parameters.z_layered = Dict("value" => 400.0)
 
     @testset "exponential profile" begin
         model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-        (; vertical) = model
-        z = vertical.zi[i]
-        kv_z = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(vertical, z, i, 2, "exponential")
-        @test kv_z ≈ vertical.kvfrac[i][2] * vertical.kv_0[i] * exp(-vertical.f[i] * z)
-        @test vertical.z_exp == vertical.soilthickness
-        @test_throws ErrorException Wflow.kh_layered_profile(
-            vertical,
-            100.0,
-            i,
-            "exponential",
-        )
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.z_layered))
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.kv[i]))
-        @test all(vertical.nlayers_kv .== 0)
+        (; soil) = model.vertical
+        (; kv_profile) = soil.parameters
+        (; subsurface) = model.lateral
+        z = soil.variables.zi[i]
+        kvfrac = soil.parameters.kvfrac
+        kv_z = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, z, i, 2)
+        @test kv_z ≈ kvfrac[i][2] * kv_profile.kv_0[i] * exp(-kv_profile.f[i] * z)
+        @test subsurface.ssfmax[i] ≈ 28.32720603576582f0
+        @test subsurface.ssf[i] ≈ 11683.330684556406f0
     end
 
     @testset "exponential constant profile" begin
         config.input.vertical.ksat_profile = "exponential_constant"
         model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-        (; vertical) = model
-        z = vertical.zi[i]
-        kv_z =
-            Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(vertical, z, i, 2, "exponential_constant")
-        @test kv_z ≈ vertical.kvfrac[i][2] * vertical.kv_0[i] * exp(-vertical.f[i] * z)
-        kv_400 = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
-            vertical,
-            400.0,
-            i,
-            2,
-            "exponential_constant",
-        )
-        kv_1000 = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
-            vertical,
-            1000.0,
-            i,
-            3,
-            "exponential_constant",
-        )
+        (; soil) = model.vertical
+        (; kv_profile) = soil.parameters
+        (; subsurface) = model.lateral
+        z = soil.variables.zi[i]
+        kvfrac = soil.parameters.kvfrac
+        kv_z = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, z, i, 2)
+        @test kv_z ≈
+              kvfrac[i][2] *
+              kv_profile.exponential.kv_0[i] *
+              exp(-kv_profile.exponential.f[i] * z)
+        kv_400 = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, 400.0, i, 2)
+        kv_1000 = Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, 1000.0, i, 3)
         @test kv_400 ≈ kv_1000
-        @test_throws ErrorException Wflow.kh_layered_profile(
-            vertical,
-            100.0,
-            i,
-            "exponential_constant",
-        )
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.z_layered))
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.kv[i]))
-        @test all(vertical.nlayers_kv .== 0)
-        @test all(vertical.z_exp .== 400.0)
+        @test all(kv_profile.z_exp .== 400.0)
+        @test subsurface.ssfmax[i] ≈ 49.38558575188426f0
+        @test subsurface.ssf[i] ≈ 24810.460986497365f0
     end
 
     @testset "layered profile" begin
         config.input.vertical.ksat_profile = "layered"
         model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-        (; vertical) = model
-        z = vertical.zi[i]
-        @test Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(vertical, z, i, 2, "layered") ≈
-              vertical.kv[100][2]
-        @test Wflow.kh_layered_profile(vertical, 100.0, i, "layered") ≈ 47.508932674632355f0
-        @test vertical.nlayers_kv[i] == 4
-        @test vertical.z_layered == vertical.soilthickness
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.z_exp))
+        (; soil) = model.vertical
+        (; kv_profile) = soil.parameters
+        (; subsurface) = model.lateral
+        z = soil.variables.zi[i]
+        kvfrac = soil.parameters.kvfrac
+        @test Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, z, i, 2) ≈
+              kv_profile.kv[i][2]
+        Wflow.kh_layered_profile!(soil, subsurface, kv_profile, 86400.0)
+        @test subsurface.kh_profile.kh[i] ≈ 47.508932674632355f0
+        @test subsurface.ssfmax[i] ≈ 30.237094380100316f0
+        @test subsurface.ssf[i] ≈ 14546.518932613191f0
     end
 
     @testset "layered exponential profile" begin
         config.input.vertical.ksat_profile = "layered_exponential"
         model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-        (; vertical) = model
-        z = vertical.zi[i]
-        @test Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(
-            vertical,
-            z,
-            i,
-            2,
-            "layered_exponential",
-        ) ≈ vertical.kv[i][2]
-        @test vertical.nlayers_kv[i] == 2
-        @test Wflow.kh_layered_profile(vertical, 100.0, i, "layered_exponential") ≈
-              33.76026208801769f0
-        @test all(vertical.z_layered[1:10] .== 400.0)
-        @test all(isnan.(vertical.z_exp))
+        (; soil) = model.vertical
+        (; kv_profile) = soil.parameters
+        (; subsurface) = model.lateral
+        z = soil.variables.zi[i]
+        kvfrac = soil.parameters.kvfrac
+        @test Wflow.hydraulic_conductivity_at_depth(kv_profile, kvfrac, z, i, 2) ≈
+              kv_profile.kv[i][2]
+        @test kv_profile.nlayers_kv[i] == 2
+        Wflow.kh_layered_profile!(soil, subsurface, kv_profile, 86400.0)
+        @test subsurface.kh_profile.kh[i] ≈ 33.76026208801769f0
+        @test all(kv_profile.z_layered[1:10] .== 400.0)
+        @test subsurface.ssfmax[i] ≈ 23.4840490395906f0
+        @test subsurface.ssf[i] ≈ 10336.88327617503f0
     end
 
-    model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-    model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     @testset "river flow layered exponential profile" begin
+        model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
+        Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+        Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
         q = model.lateral.river.q_av
         @test sum(q) ≈ 3159.38300016008f0
         @test q[1622] ≈ 0.0005972577112819149f0
         @test q[43] ≈ 10.017642376280731f0
     end
 
-    Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+    Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 end
diff --git a/test/run_sbm_gwf.jl b/test/run_sbm_gwf.jl
index 3af207643..60b77a8de 100644
--- a/test/run_sbm_gwf.jl
+++ b/test/run_sbm_gwf.jl
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
 (; network) = model
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 # test if the first timestep was written to the CSV file
 flush(model.writer.csv_io)  # ensure the buffer is written fully to disk
@@ -21,21 +21,21 @@ end
     sbm = model.vertical
 
     @test model.clock.iteration == 1
-    @test sbm.theta_s[1] ≈ 0.44999998807907104f0
-    @test sbm.runoff[1] == 0.0
-    @test sbm.soilevap[1] == 0.0
-    @test sbm.transpiration[1] ≈ 0.30587632831650247f0
+    @test sbm.soil.parameters.theta_s[1] ≈ 0.44999998807907104f0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.runoff[1] == 0.0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.soilevap[1] == 0.0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.transpiration[1] ≈ 0.30587632831650247f0
 end
 
 # run the second timestep
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "second timestep" begin
     sbm = model.vertical
-    @test sbm.theta_s[1] ≈ 0.44999998807907104f0
-    @test sbm.runoff[1] == 0.0
-    @test sbm.soilevap[1] == 0.0
-    @test sbm.transpiration[4] ≈ 0.7000003898938235f0
+    @test sbm.soil.parameters.theta_s[1] ≈ 0.44999998807907104f0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.runoff[1] == 0.0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.soilevap[1] == 0.0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.transpiration[4] ≈ 0.7000003898938235f0
 end
 
 @testset "overland flow (kinematic wave)" begin
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ end
     @test collect(keys(model.lateral.subsurface)) == [:flow, :recharge, :river]
 end
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test local-inertial option for river flow routing
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_gwf_config.toml")
@@ -87,8 +87,8 @@ config.input.lateral.river.bankfull_elevation = "bankfull_elevation"
 config.input.lateral.river.bankfull_depth = "bankfull_depth"
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river domain (local inertial)" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     @test q[13] ≈ 0.0004638698607639214f0
     @test q[5] ≈ 0.0064668491697542786f0
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test local-inertial option for river and overland flow routing
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_gwf_config.toml")
@@ -118,8 +118,8 @@ config.state.lateral.land.qx = "qx_land"
 config.state.lateral.land.qy = "qy_land"
 
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "river and land domain (local inertial)" begin
     q = model.lateral.river.q_av
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
     @test all(qx .== 0.0f0)
     @test all(qy .== 0.0f0)
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 # test with warm start
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_gwf_config.toml")
@@ -146,14 +146,14 @@ config.model.reinit = false
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
 (; network) = model
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "second timestep warm start" begin
     sbm = model.vertical
-    @test sbm.runoff[1] == 0.0
-    @test sbm.soilevap[1] ≈ 0.2889306511074693f0
-    @test sbm.transpiration[1] ≈ 0.8370726722706481f0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.runoff[1] == 0.0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.soilevap[1] ≈ 0.2889306511074693f0
+    @test sbm.soil.variables.transpiration[1] ≈ 0.8370726722706481f0
 end
 
 @testset "overland flow warm start (kinematic wave)" begin
@@ -186,4 +186,21 @@ end
     @test gw.drain.flux[1] ≈ 0.0
     @test gw.recharge.rate[19] ≈ -0.0014241196552847502f0
 end
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+
+@testset "Exchange and grid location aquifer, recharge and constant head" begin
+    aquifer = model.lateral.subsurface.flow.aquifer
+    @test Wflow.exchange(aquifer.head) == true
+    @test Wflow.exchange(aquifer.k) == true
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(aquifer, :head) == "node"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(aquifer, :k) == "node"
+    recharge = model.lateral.subsurface.recharge
+    @test Wflow.exchange(recharge.rate) == true
+    @test Wflow.exchange(recharge.flux) == true
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(recharge, :rate) == "node"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(recharge, :flux) == "node"
+    constanthead = model.lateral.subsurface.flow.constanthead
+    @test Wflow.exchange(constanthead) == false
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(constanthead, :head) == "node"
+end
+
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
diff --git a/test/run_sbm_gwf_piave.jl b/test/run_sbm_gwf_piave.jl
index 2f39b5a90..28e31a415 100644
--- a/test/run_sbm_gwf_piave.jl
+++ b/test/run_sbm_gwf_piave.jl
@@ -1,50 +1,56 @@
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_gwf_piave_demand_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_gwf_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-sbm = model.vertical
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
+(; paddy, nonpaddy, industry, livestock, domestic) = model.vertical.demand
+(; total_alloc, irri_alloc, nonirri_alloc, surfacewater_alloc, act_groundwater_abst) =
+    model.vertical.allocation.variables
 @testset "piave water demand and allocation first timestep" begin
-    sum_total_alloc = sum(sbm.allocation.total_alloc)
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.irri_alloc) + sum(sbm.allocation.nonirri_alloc) ≈
-          sum_total_alloc
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1016.4268126167575f0
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 182.2057678312209f0
-    @test sbm.paddy.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
+    sum_total_alloc = sum(total_alloc)
+    @test sum(irri_alloc) + sum(nonirri_alloc) ≈ sum_total_alloc
+    @test sum(surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1016.4268126167575f0
+    @test sum(act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 182.2057678312209f0
+    @test paddy.variables.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
           [33.55659436283413f0, 44.11663357735189f0, 35.232731550849486f0]
-    @test sbm.paddy.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.paddy.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈ [3.3014913197447964f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.2105557769536972f0, 0.0485190823674202f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
+    @test paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test paddy.variables.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
+    @test nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
+          [3.3014913197447964f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test industry.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
+          [0.2105557769536972f0, 0.0485190823674202f0]
+    @test industry.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
           [0.05265098437666893f0, 0.012132546864449978f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.15790479257702827f0, 0.03638653550297022f0]
-    @test sbm.livestock.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
+    @test industry.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈
+          [0.15790479257702827f0, 0.03638653550297022f0]
+    @test livestock.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
           [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
-    @test sbm.livestock.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
-    @test sbm.livestock.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.5389957427978516f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [0.33949509263038635f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.1995004952035704f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test livestock.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
+          [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
+    @test livestock.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.5389957427978516f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [0.33949509263038635f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.1995004952035704f0, 0.0f0]
 end
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
-sbm = model.vertical
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
+(; paddy, nonpaddy, industry, livestock, domestic) = model.vertical.demand
+(; total_alloc, irri_alloc, nonirri_alloc, surfacewater_alloc, act_groundwater_abst) =
+    model.vertical.allocation.variables
 
 @testset "piave water demand and allocation second timestep" begin
-    sum_total_alloc = sum(sbm.allocation.total_alloc)
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.irri_alloc) + sum(sbm.allocation.nonirri_alloc) ≈
-          sum_total_alloc
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1057.2573971583527f0
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 189.12436534660375f0
-    @test sbm.paddy.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
+    sum_total_alloc = sum(total_alloc)
+    @test sum(irri_alloc) + sum(nonirri_alloc) ≈ sum_total_alloc
+    @test sum(surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1057.2573971583527f0
+    @test sum(act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 189.12436534660375f0
+    @test paddy.variables.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
           [28.197082339552537f0, 25.873022895247782f0, 30.066801639786547f0]
-    @test sbm.paddy.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.paddy.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
+    @test paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test paddy.variables.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
           [4.059144161330735f0, 0.0f0, 1.9399078662788196f0]
 end
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
diff --git a/test/run_sbm_piave.jl b/test/run_sbm_piave.jl
index 1d5a2fae6..a409cad08 100644
--- a/test/run_sbm_piave.jl
+++ b/test/run_sbm_piave.jl
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ function run_piave(model, steps)
     q = zeros(steps)
     ssf_vol = zeros(steps)
     riv_vol = zeros(steps)
-    for i = 1:steps
-        model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+    for i in 1:steps
+        Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
         ssf_vol[i] = mean(model.lateral.subsurface.volume)
         riv_vol[i] = mean(model.lateral.river.volume)
         q[i] = model.lateral.river.q_av[1]
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_piave_demand_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
 q_demand, riv_vol_demand, ssf_vol_demand = run_piave(model, 30)
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_piave_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
 q_, riv_vol, ssf_vol = run_piave(model, 30)
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 @testset "piave with and without water demand" begin
     idx = 1:3:28
@@ -103,51 +103,57 @@ end
 tomlpath = joinpath(@__DIR__, "sbm_piave_demand_config.toml")
 config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sbm_model(config)
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 sbm = model.vertical
+(; paddy, nonpaddy, industry, livestock, domestic) = model.vertical.demand
+(; total_alloc, irri_alloc, nonirri_alloc, surfacewater_alloc, act_groundwater_abst) =
+    sbm.allocation.variables
 
 @testset "piave water demand and allocation first timestep" begin
-    sum_total_alloc = sum(sbm.allocation.total_alloc)
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.irri_alloc) + sum(sbm.allocation.nonirri_alloc) ≈
-          sum_total_alloc
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1030.1528204311428f0
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 184.47031930837645f0
-    @test sbm.paddy.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
+    sum_total_alloc = sum(total_alloc)
+    @test sum(irri_alloc) + sum(nonirri_alloc) ≈ sum_total_alloc
+    @test sum(surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 1030.1528204311428f0
+    @test sum(act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 184.47031930837645f0
+    @test paddy.variables.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
           [34.759292485507515f0, 42.517504464353635f0, 35.83766686539591f0]
-    @test sbm.paddy.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.paddy.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
+    @test paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test paddy.variables.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
+    @test nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
           [3.031574420740574f0, 1.8618934872392217f0, 0.42233065562148375f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.2105557769536972f0, 0.0485190823674202f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
+    @test industry.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
+          [0.2105557769536972f0, 0.0485190823674202f0]
+    @test industry.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
           [0.05265098437666893f0, 0.012132546864449978f0]
-    @test sbm.industry.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.15790479257702827f0, 0.03638653550297022f0]
-    @test sbm.livestock.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
+    @test industry.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈
+          [0.15790479257702827f0, 0.03638653550297022f0]
+    @test livestock.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈
           [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
-    @test sbm.livestock.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
-    @test sbm.livestock.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.5389957427978516f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [0.33949509263038635f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.domestic.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.1995004952035704f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test livestock.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈
+          [9.896758274408057f-5, 6.352497439365834f-5]
+    @test livestock.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.demand.demand_gross[[1, end]] ≈ [0.5389957427978516f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.demand.demand_net[[1, end]] ≈ [0.33949509263038635f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test domestic.variables.returnflow[[1, end]] ≈ [0.1995004952035704f0, 0.0f0]
 end
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 sbm = model.vertical
-
+(; paddy, nonpaddy, industry, livestock, domestic) = model.vertical.demand
+(; total_alloc, irri_alloc, nonirri_alloc, surfacewater_alloc, act_groundwater_abst) =
+    sbm.allocation.variables
 @testset "piave water demand and allocation second timestep" begin
-    sum_total_alloc = sum(sbm.allocation.total_alloc)
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.irri_alloc) + sum(sbm.allocation.nonirri_alloc) ≈
-          sum_total_alloc
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 940.1941924010235f0
-    @test sum(sbm.allocation.act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 163.59123515939052f0
-    @test sbm.paddy.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
+    sum_total_alloc = sum(total_alloc)
+    @test sum(irri_alloc) + sum(nonirri_alloc) ≈ sum_total_alloc
+    @test sum(surfacewater_alloc) ≈ 940.1941924010235f0
+    @test sum(act_groundwater_abst) ≈ 163.59123515939052f0
+    @test paddy.variables.h[[45, 76, 296]] ≈
           [29.50674105890283f0, 38.11966817469463f0, 30.679920457042897f0]
-    @test sbm.paddy.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.paddy.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
-    @test sbm.nonpaddy.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
+    @test paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[45, 76, 296]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test paddy.variables.demand_gross[[45, 76, 296]] ≈ [0.0f0, 0.0f0, 0.0f0]
+    @test nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger[[10, 33, 1293]] == [1, 1, 1]
+    @test nonpaddy.variables.demand_gross[[10, 33, 1293]] ≈
           [3.8551909476218054f0, 0.0f0, 1.3531153828385536f0]
 end
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
diff --git a/test/run_sediment.jl b/test/run_sediment.jl
index f8b323996..58c0096bc 100644
--- a/test/run_sediment.jl
+++ b/test/run_sediment.jl
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ config = Wflow.Config(tomlpath)
 model = Wflow.initialize_sediment_model(config)
 (; network) = model
 
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "first timestep sediment model (vertical)" begin
     eros = model.vertical
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
 end
 
 # run the second timestep
-model = Wflow.run_timestep(model)
+Wflow.run_timestep!(model)
 
 @testset "second timestep sediment model (vertical)" begin
     eros = model.vertical
@@ -51,4 +51,20 @@ end
     @test lat.river.outclay[5649] ≈ 2.359031898208781f-9
 end
 
+@testset "Exchange and grid location sediment" begin
+    @test Wflow.exchange(model.vertical.n) == false
+    @test Wflow.exchange(model.vertical.erosk) == true
+    @test Wflow.exchange(model.vertical.leaf_area_index) == true
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(model.vertical, :n) == "none"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(model.vertical, :erosk) == "node"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(model.vertical, :leaf_area_index) == "node"
+    land = model.lateral.land
+    @test Wflow.exchange(land.n) == false
+    @test Wflow.exchange(land.soilloss) == true
+    @test Wflow.exchange(land.inlandsed) == true
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(land, :n) == "none"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(land, :soilloss) == "node"
+    @test Wflow.grid_loc(land, :inlandsed) == "node"
+end
+
 Wflow.close_files(model)
diff --git a/test/runtests.jl b/test/runtests.jl
index 67947e377..6981af08d 100644
--- a/test/runtests.jl
+++ b/test/runtests.jl
@@ -10,11 +10,11 @@ using Wflow
 using Base.MathConstants: eulergamma
 using Base.Threads
 using BasicModelInterface
-import Polynomials
+using Polynomials: Polynomials
 using DelimitedFiles
 using LoggingExtras
 using QuadGK
-import Aqua
+using Aqua: Aqua
 
 const BMI = BasicModelInterface
 const Float = Wflow.Float
@@ -37,11 +37,7 @@ end
 staticmaps_rhine_path = testdata(v"0.1", "staticmaps.nc", "staticmaps-rhine.nc")
 staticmaps_moselle_path =
     testdata(v"0.2.9", "staticmaps-moselle.nc", "staticmaps-moselle.nc")
-staticmaps_lahn_path = testdata(v"0.2.1", "staticmaps-lahn.nc", "staticmaps-lahn.nc")
-staticmaps_meuse_path =
-    testdata(v"0.2.8", "staticmaps_flex_meuse.nc", "staticmaps_flex_meuse.nc")
 forcing_moselle_path = testdata(v"0.2.6", "forcing-moselle.nc", "forcing-moselle.nc")
-forcing_lahn_path = testdata(v"0.2", "forcing-lahn.nc", "forcing-lahn.nc")
 forcing_moselle_sed_path =
     testdata(v"0.2.3", "forcing-moselle-sed.nc", "forcing-moselle-sed.nc")
 staticmaps_moselle_sed_path =
@@ -59,7 +55,6 @@ forcing_sbm_gw_path = testdata(
     "forcing-sbm-groundwater-part2.nc",
     "forcing-sbm-groundwater-part2.nc",
 )
-forcing_meuse_path = testdata(v"0.2.8", "forcing_meuse.nc", "forcing_meuse.nc")
 staticmaps_sbm_gw_path =
     testdata(v"0.2.3", "staticmaps-sbm-groundwater.nc", "staticmaps-sbm-groundwater.nc")
 instates_sbm_gw_path =
@@ -72,7 +67,8 @@ forcing_calendar_noleap_path =
 forcing_piave_path = testdata(v"0.2.9", "inmaps-era5-2010-piave.nc", "forcing-piave.nc")
 staticmaps_piave_path = testdata(v"0.2.9", "staticmaps-piave.nc", "staticmaps-piave.nc")
 instates_piave_path = testdata(v"0.2.9", "instates-piave.nc", "instates-piave.nc")
-instates_piave_gwf_path = testdata(v"0.2.9", "instates-piave-gwf.nc", "instates-piave-gwf.nc")
+instates_piave_gwf_path =
+    testdata(v"0.2.9", "instates-piave-gwf.nc", "instates-piave-gwf.nc")
 
 include("testing_utils.jl")
 
@@ -89,7 +85,6 @@ with_logger(NullLogger()) do
         include("run_sbm.jl")
         include("run_sbm_piave.jl")
         include("run_sbm_gwf_piave.jl")
-        include("run_hbv.jl")
         include("run_sbm_gwf.jl")
         include("run.jl")
         include("groundwater.jl")
@@ -97,7 +92,6 @@ with_logger(NullLogger()) do
         include("bmi.jl")
         include("run_sediment.jl")
         include("subdomains.jl")
-        include("run_flextopo.jl")
 
         Aqua.test_all(Wflow; ambiguities = false, persistent_tasks = false)
     end
diff --git a/test/sbm_config.toml b/test/sbm_config.toml
index 3ab5c92d0..39898a488 100644
--- a/test/sbm_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_config.toml
@@ -19,14 +19,18 @@ path_output = "outstates-moselle.nc"
 # if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
 # if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
 
-[state.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [state.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 h_av = "h_av_river"
@@ -56,42 +60,52 @@ subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index"]
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
-[input.vertical.kv_0]
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters.kv_0]
 netcdf.variable.name = "KsatVer"
 scale = 1.0
 offset = 0.0
@@ -135,14 +149,18 @@ min_streamorder_land = 5
 [output]
 path = "output_moselle.nc"
 
-[output.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[output.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[output.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [output.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 q = "q_river"
@@ -170,14 +188,14 @@ coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 name = "temp_coord"
 location = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[netcdf.variable]]
 location = "temp_byindex"
 name = "temp_index"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [csv]
 path = "output_moselle.csv"
@@ -196,20 +214,20 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.reservoir.volume"
 coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 header = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 header = "vwc_layer2_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.vwc"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.vwc"
 layer = 2
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "temp_byindex"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "Q"
@@ -219,12 +237,24 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.q"
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "recharge"
 map = "subcatchment"
-parameter = "vertical.recharge"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.recharge"
 reducer = "mean"
 
 [API]
 components = [
-  "vertical",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing",
+  "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set",
+  "vertical.runoff.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.runoff.variables",
+  "vertical.runoff.parameters",
+  "vertical.soil.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.soil.variables",
+  "vertical.soil.parameters",
+  "vertical.interception.variables",
+  "vertical.interception.parameters",
+  "vertical.snow.boundary_conditions",
+  "vertical.snow.variables",
+  "vertical.snow.parameters",
   "lateral.subsurface",
   "lateral.land",
   "lateral.river",
diff --git a/test/sbm_gw.toml b/test/sbm_gw.toml
index b7431955d..a18965254 100644
--- a/test/sbm_gw.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_gw.toml
@@ -18,14 +18,18 @@ path_output = "outstates-moselle.nc"
 # if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
 # if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
 
-[state.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables] 
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[state.vertical.snow.variables] 
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [state.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 h_av = "h_av_river"
@@ -52,14 +56,29 @@ subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index"]
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
 cfmax = "Cfmax"
@@ -67,26 +86,19 @@ e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
 kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
 rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
 
 [input.lateral.river]
 length = "wflow_riverlength"
@@ -120,14 +132,18 @@ type = "sbm"
 [output]
 path = "output_moselle.nc"
 
-[output.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[output.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[output.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [output.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 q = "q_river"
@@ -152,14 +168,14 @@ coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 name = "temp_coord"
 location = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[netcdf.variable]]
 location = "temp_byindex"
 name = "temp_index"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [csv]
 path = "output_moselle.csv"
@@ -178,13 +194,13 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.reservoir.volume"
 coordinate.x = 6.255
 coordinate.y = 50.012
 header = "temp_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "temp_byindex"
 index.x = 100
 index.y = 264
-parameter = "vertical.temperature"
+parameter = "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "Q"
@@ -194,7 +210,7 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.q"
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "recharge"
 map = "subcatchment"
-parameter = "vertical.recharge"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.recharge"
 reducer = "mean"
 
 [API]
diff --git a/test/sbm_gwf_config.toml b/test/sbm_gwf_config.toml
index d94b203bf..f08431236 100644
--- a/test/sbm_gwf_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_gwf_config.toml
@@ -18,8 +18,10 @@ path_output = "outstates-example-sbm-gwf.nc"
 # if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
 # if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
 
-[state.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
@@ -49,21 +51,26 @@ altitude = "wflow_dem"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+rootingdepth = "rootingdepth"
 canopygapfraction = "canopygapfraction"
 cmax = "cmax"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
 e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "PET"
+precipitation = "P"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
 kv_0 = "kv"
-m = "M"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "PET"
-precipitation = "P"
-rootingdepth = "rootingdepth"
 soilthickness = "soilthickness"
 theta_r = "thetaR"
 theta_s = "thetaS"
@@ -102,12 +109,16 @@ type = "sbm_gwf"
 [output]
 path = "output_example-sbm-gwf.nc"
 
-[output.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[output.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-soilthickness = "soilthickness"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[output.vertical.soil.parameters]
+soilthickness = "soilthickness"
+
 [output.lateral.river]
 q = "q"
 
diff --git a/test/sbm_gwf_piave_demand_config.toml b/test/sbm_gwf_piave_demand_config.toml
index fa7e4cb44..a9a9cf25a 100644
--- a/test/sbm_gwf_piave_demand_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_gwf_piave_demand_config.toml
@@ -18,11 +18,26 @@ ldd = "wflow_ldd"
 river_location = "wflow_river"
 altitude = "wflow_dem"
 subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
-forcing = [ "vertical.precipitation", "vertical.temperature", "vertical.potential_evaporation",]
-cyclic = [ "vertical.leaf_area_index", "vertical.domestic.demand_gross", "vertical.domestic.demand_net", "vertical.industry.demand_gross", "vertical.industry.demand_net", "vertical.livestock.demand_gross", "vertical.livestock.demand_net", "vertical.paddy.irrigation_trigger", "vertical.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger",]
 gauges = "wflow_gauges"
 gauges_grdc = "wflow_gauges_grdc"
 
+forcing = [
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
+]
+cyclic = [ 
+    "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index", 
+    "vertical.demand.domestic.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.domestic.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.industry.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.industry.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.livestock.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.livestock.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger", 
+    "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger",
+]
+
 [model]
 type = "sbm_gwf"
 constanthead = true
@@ -38,65 +53,81 @@ kw_land_tstep = 3600
 thicknesslayers = [ 50, 100, 50, 200, 800,]
 river_routing = "kinematic-wave"
 
-[state.vertical]
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
-glacierstore = "glacierstore"
 
-[state.vertical.paddy]
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
+[state.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "glacierstore"
+
+[state.vertical.demand.paddy.variables]
 h = "h_paddy"
 
 [state.lateral.subsurface.flow.aquifer]
 head = "head"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.glacier.parameters]
+glacier_frac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
+g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
+g_tt = "G_TT"
+g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
+
+[input.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "wflow_glacierstore"
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+kc = "crop_factor"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 alpha_h1 = "alpha_h1"
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
+h1 = "h1"
+h2 = "h2"
+h3_high = "h3_high"
+h3_low = "h3_low"
+h4 = "h4"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
-m = "M_"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
-soilminthickness = "SoilMinThickness"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness_gw"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
+kvfrac = "kvfrac"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-glacierstore = "wflow_glacierstore"
-glacierfrac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
-g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
-g_tt = "G_TT"
-g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
-kc = "crop_factor"
-kvfrac = "kvfrac"
-h1 = "h1"
-h2 = "h2"
-h3_high = "h3_high"
-h3_low = "h3_low"
-h4 = "h4"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
 [model.water_demand]
 domestic = true
@@ -118,27 +149,27 @@ q = "q_land"
 h = "h_land"
 h_av = "h_av_land"
 
-[input.vertical.allocation]
+[input.vertical.allocation.parameters]
 areas = "allocation_areas"
 frac_sw_used = "SurfaceWaterFrac"
 
-[input.vertical.domestic]
+[input.vertical.demand.domestic.demand]
 demand_gross = "dom_gross"
 demand_net = "dom_net"
 
-[input.vertical.industry]
+[input.vertical.demand.industry.demand]
 demand_gross = "ind_gross"
 demand_net = "ind_net"
 
-[input.vertical.livestock]
+[input.vertical.demand.livestock.demand]
 demand_gross = "lsk_gross"
 demand_net = "lsk_net"
 
-[input.vertical.paddy]
+[input.vertical.demand.paddy.parameters]
 irrigation_areas = "paddy_irrigation_areas"
 irrigation_trigger = "irrigation_trigger"
 
-[input.vertical.nonpaddy]
+[input.vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters]
 irrigation_areas = "nonpaddy_irrigation_areas"
 irrigation_trigger = "irrigation_trigger"
 
@@ -169,7 +200,7 @@ path = "output-piave-gwf.nc"
 [output.lateral.river]
 q_av = "q_river"
 
-[output.vertical]
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 zi = "zi"
 
 [output.lateral.subsurface.flow.aquifer]
diff --git a/test/sbm_piave_config.toml b/test/sbm_piave_config.toml
index 22c5e30c8..cee9e3685 100644
--- a/test/sbm_piave_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_piave_config.toml
@@ -17,11 +17,17 @@ path_static = "staticmaps-piave.nc"
 ldd = "wflow_ldd"
 river_location = "wflow_river"
 subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
-forcing = [ "vertical.precipitation", "vertical.temperature", "vertical.potential_evaporation",]
-cyclic = [ "vertical.leaf_area_index",]
 gauges = "wflow_gauges"
 gauges_grdc = "wflow_gauges_grdc"
 
+forcing = [
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
+]
+
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
+
 [model]
 type = "sbm"
 masswasting = true
@@ -36,58 +42,74 @@ kw_land_tstep = 3600
 thicknesslayers = [ 50, 100, 50, 200, 800,]
 river_routing = "kinematic-wave"
 
-[state.vertical]
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
-glacierstore = "glacierstore"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
+[state.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "glacierstore"
+
+[input.vertical.glacier.parameters]
+glacier_frac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
+g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
+g_tt = "G_TT"
+g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
+
+[input.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "wflow_glacierstore"
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+kc = "crop_factor"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 alpha_h1 = "alpha_h1"
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
+h1 = "h1"
+h2 = "h2"
+h3_high = "h3_high"
+h3_low = "h3_low"
+h4 = "h4"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
-m = "M_"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
-soilminthickness = "SoilMinThickness"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-glacierstore = "wflow_glacierstore"
-glacierfrac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
-g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
-g_tt = "G_TT"
-g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
-kc = "crop_factor"
-h1 = "h1"
-h2 = "h2"
-h3_high = "h3_high"
-h3_low = "h3_low"
-h4 = "h4"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
 [state.lateral.river]
 q = "q_river"
diff --git a/test/sbm_piave_demand_config.toml b/test/sbm_piave_demand_config.toml
index 141ef0105..b1e530b87 100644
--- a/test/sbm_piave_demand_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_piave_demand_config.toml
@@ -17,11 +17,26 @@ path_static = "staticmaps-piave.nc"
 ldd = "wflow_ldd"
 river_location = "wflow_river"
 subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
-forcing = [ "vertical.precipitation", "vertical.temperature", "vertical.potential_evaporation",]
-cyclic = [ "vertical.leaf_area_index", "vertical.domestic.demand_gross", "vertical.domestic.demand_net", "vertical.industry.demand_gross", "vertical.industry.demand_net", "vertical.livestock.demand_gross", "vertical.livestock.demand_net", "vertical.paddy.irrigation_trigger", "vertical.nonpaddy.irrigation_trigger",]
 gauges = "wflow_gauges"
 gauges_grdc = "wflow_gauges_grdc"
 
+forcing = [
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
+]
+cyclic = [ 
+    "vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index", 
+    "vertical.demand.domestic.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.domestic.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.industry.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.industry.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.livestock.demand.demand_gross", 
+    "vertical.demand.livestock.demand.demand_net", 
+    "vertical.demand.paddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger", 
+    "vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters.irrigation_trigger",
+]
+
 [model]
 type = "sbm"
 masswasting = true
@@ -36,62 +51,78 @@ kw_land_tstep = 3600
 thicknesslayers = [ 50, 100, 50, 200, 800,]
 river_routing = "kinematic-wave"
 
-[state.vertical]
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
-glacierstore = "glacierstore"
 
-[state.vertical.paddy]
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
+[state.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "glacierstore"
+
+[state.vertical.demand.paddy.variables]
 h = "h_paddy"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.glacier.parameters]
+glacier_frac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
+g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
+g_tt = "G_TT"
+g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
+
+[input.vertical.glacier.variables]
+glacier_store = "wflow_glacierstore"
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+kc = "crop_factor"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 alpha_h1 = "alpha_h1"
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
+h1 = "h1"
+h2 = "h2"
+h3_high = "h3_high"
+h3_low = "h3_low"
+h4 = "h4"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
-m = "M_"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
-soilminthickness = "SoilMinThickness"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
+kvfrac = "kvfrac"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-glacierstore = "wflow_glacierstore"
-glacierfrac = "wflow_glacierfrac"
-g_cfmax = "G_Cfmax"
-g_tt = "G_TT"
-g_sifrac = "G_SIfrac"
-kc = "crop_factor"
-kvfrac = "kvfrac"
-h1 = "h1"
-h2 = "h2"
-h3_high = "h3_high"
-h3_low = "h3_low"
-h4 = "h4"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
 [model.water_demand]
 domestic = true
@@ -113,27 +144,27 @@ q = "q_land"
 h = "h_land"
 h_av = "h_av_land"
 
-[input.vertical.allocation]
+[input.vertical.allocation.parameters]
 areas = "allocation_areas"
 frac_sw_used = "SurfaceWaterFrac"
 
-[input.vertical.domestic]
+[input.vertical.demand.domestic.demand]
 demand_gross = "dom_gross"
 demand_net = "dom_net"
 
-[input.vertical.industry]
+[input.vertical.demand.industry.demand]
 demand_gross = "ind_gross"
 demand_net = "ind_net"
 
-[input.vertical.livestock]
+[input.vertical.demand.livestock.demand]
 demand_gross = "lsk_gross"
 demand_net = "lsk_net"
 
-[input.vertical.paddy]
+[input.vertical.demand.paddy.parameters]
 irrigation_areas = "paddy_irrigation_areas"
 irrigation_trigger = "irrigation_trigger"
 
-[input.vertical.nonpaddy]
+[input.vertical.demand.nonpaddy.parameters]
 irrigation_areas = "nonpaddy_irrigation_areas"
 irrigation_trigger = "irrigation_trigger"
 
@@ -157,7 +188,7 @@ path = "output-piave-demand.nc"
 [output.lateral.river]
 q_av = "q_river"
 
-[output.vertical]
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 zi = "zi"
 
 [csv]
@@ -177,10 +208,10 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.q_av"
 coordinate.x = 12.7243
 coordinate.y = 45.5851
 header = "paddy_h_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.paddy.h"
+parameter = "vertical.demand.paddy.variables.h"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 coordinate.x = 12.7243
 coordinate.y = 45.5851
 header = "irri_bycoord"
-parameter = "vertical.allocation.irri_alloc"
\ No newline at end of file
+parameter = "vertical.allocation.variables.irri_alloc"
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test/sbm_simple.toml b/test/sbm_simple.toml
index 7916cf114..b6e16d6d1 100644
--- a/test/sbm_simple.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_simple.toml
@@ -20,44 +20,50 @@ subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index"]
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
 
-[input.vertical]
-altitude = "wflow_dem"
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
+
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
+f = "f"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
-m = "M"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
-soilminthickness = "SoilMinThickness"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-w_soil = "wflow_soil"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
 [input.lateral.river]
 length = "wflow_riverlength"
@@ -97,5 +103,5 @@ parameter = "lateral.river.q"
 
 [[csv.column]]
 header = "recharge"
-parameter = "vertical.recharge"
+parameter = "vertical.soil.variables.recharge"
 reducer = "mean"
diff --git a/test/sbm_swf_config.toml b/test/sbm_swf_config.toml
index 92872f36f..79ec88b3c 100644
--- a/test/sbm_swf_config.toml
+++ b/test/sbm_swf_config.toml
@@ -14,14 +14,18 @@ dir_output = "data/output"
 # if listed, the variable must be present in the NetCDF or error
 # if not listed, the variable can get a default value if it has one
 
-[state.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[state.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[state.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[state.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [state.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 h_av = "h_av_river"
@@ -52,41 +56,50 @@ subcatchment = "wflow_subcatch"
 # specify the internal IDs of the parameters which vary over time
 # the external name mapping needs to be below together with the other mappings
 forcing = [
-  "vertical.precipitation",
-  "vertical.temperature",
-  "vertical.potential_evaporation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.precipitation",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.temperature",
+  "vertical.atmospheric_forcing.potential_evaporation",
 ]
 
-cyclic = ["vertical.leaf_area_index"]
+cyclic = ["vertical.vegetation_parameter_set.leaf_area_index"]
+
+[input.vertical.vegetation_parameter_set]
+leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+kext = "Kext"
+storage_specific_leaf = "Sl"
+storage_wood = "Swood"
+rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
+
+[input.vertical.interception.parameters]
+e_r = "EoverR"
+
+[input.vertical.atmospheric_forcing]
+potential_evaporation = "pet"
+precipitation = "precip"
+temperature = "temp"
 
-[input.vertical]
+[input.vertical.runoff.parameters]
+waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
+
+[input.vertical.soil.parameters]
 c = "c"
 cf_soil = "cf_soil"
-cfmax = "Cfmax"
-e_r = "EoverR"
 f = "f"
 infiltcappath = "InfiltCapPath"
 infiltcapsoil = "InfiltCapSoil"
-kext = "Kext"
-kv_0 = "KsatVer"
-leaf_area_index = "LAI"
+theta_r = "thetaR"
+theta_s = "thetaS"
 maxleakage = "MaxLeakage"
 pathfrac = "PathFrac"
-potential_evaporation = "pet"
-precipitation = "precip"
 rootdistpar = "rootdistpar"
-rootingdepth = "RootingDepth"
 soilthickness = "SoilThickness"
-specific_leaf = "Sl"
-storage_wood = "Swood"
-temperature = "temp"
+kv_0 = "KsatVer"
+
+[input.vertical.snow.parameters]
 tt = "TT"
 tti = "TTI"
 ttm = "TTM"
-water_holding_capacity = "WHC"
-waterfrac = "WaterFrac"
-theta_r = "thetaR"
-theta_s = "thetaS"
+cfmax = "Cfmax"
 
 [input.lateral.river]
 length = "wflow_riverlength"
@@ -127,14 +140,18 @@ type = "sbm"
 [output]
 path = "output_moselle_swf.nc"
 
-[output.vertical]
-canopystorage = "canopystorage"
+[output.vertical.interception.variables]
+canopy_storage = "canopystorage"
+
+[output.vertical.soil.variables]
 satwaterdepth = "satwaterdepth"
-snow = "snow"
-snowwater = "snowwater"
 tsoil = "tsoil"
 ustorelayerdepth = "ustorelayerdepth"
 
+[output.vertical.snow.variables]
+snow_storage = "snow"
+snow_water = "snowwater"
+
 [output.lateral.river]
 h = "h_river"
 h_av = "hav_river"
diff --git a/test/subdomains.jl b/test/subdomains.jl
index 12b5170b3..126e6f900 100644
--- a/test/subdomains.jl
+++ b/test/subdomains.jl
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ subbas_order, indices_subbas, topo_subbas = Wflow.kinwave_set_subdomains(
     min_sto_land,
 )
 
-Wflow.close_files(model, delete_output = false)
+Wflow.close_files(model; delete_output = false)
 
 if nthreads() == 1
     @testset "Nonparallel subdomains kinematic wave (nthreads = 1)" begin
diff --git a/test/testing_utils.jl b/test/testing_utils.jl
index 06a660767..c7faad0e9 100644
--- a/test/testing_utils.jl
+++ b/test/testing_utils.jl
@@ -11,14 +11,14 @@
 #     https://github.com/stevengj/18S096-iap17/blob/master/pset3/pset3-solutions.ipynb
 
 # n coefficients of the Taylor series of E₁(z) + log(z), in type T:
-function E1_taylor_coefficients(::Type{T}, n::Integer) where {T<:Number}
+function E1_taylor_coefficients(::Type{T}, n::Integer) where {T <: Number}
     n < 0 && throw(ArgumentError("$n ≥ 0 is required"))
     n == 0 && return T[]
     n == 1 && return T[-eulergamma]
     # iteratively compute the terms in the series, starting with k=1
     term::T = 1
     terms = T[-eulergamma, term]
-    for k = 2:n
+    for k in 2:n
         term = -term * (k - 1) / (k * k)
         push!(terms, term)
     end
@@ -40,10 +40,10 @@ end
 # for numeric-literal coefficients: simplify to a ratio of two polynomials:
 # return (p,q): the polynomials p(x) / q(x) corresponding to E1_cf(x, a...),
 # but without the exp(-x) term
-function E1_cfpoly(n::Integer, ::Type{T} = BigInt) where {T<:Real}
+function E1_cfpoly(n::Integer, ::Type{T} = BigInt) where {T <: Real}
     q = Polynomials.Polynomial(T[1])
     p = x = Polynomials.Polynomial(T[0, 1])
-    for i = n:-1:1
+    for i in n:-1:1
         p, q = x * p + (1 + i) * q, p # from cf = x + (1+i)/cf = x + (1+i)*q/p
         p, q = p + i * q, p     # from cf = 1 + i/cf = 1 + i*q/p
     end
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ macro E1_cf64(z, n::Integer)
 end
 
 # exponential integral function E₁(z)
-function expint(z::Union{Float64,Complex{Float64}})
+function expint(z::Union{Float64, Complex{Float64}})
     xSq = real(z)^2
     ySq = imag(z)^2
     if real(z) > 0 && xSq + 0.233 * ySq ≥ 7.84 # use cf expansion, ≤ 30 terms
@@ -81,15 +81,24 @@ function expint(z::Union{Float64,Complex{Float64}})
         return @E1_cf64 z 30
     else # use Taylor expansion, ≤ 37 terms
         rSq = xSq + ySq
-        return rSq ≤ 0.36 ?
-               (
-            rSq ≤ 2.8e-3 ? (rSq ≤ 2e-7 ? @E1_taylor64(z, 4) : @E1_taylor64(z, 8)) :
-            @E1_taylor64(z, 15)
-        ) : @E1_taylor64(z, 37)
+        return if rSq ≤ 0.36
+            (
+                if rSq ≤ 2.8e-3
+                    (rSq ≤ 2e-7 ? @E1_taylor64(z, 4) : @E1_taylor64(z, 8))
+                else
+                    @E1_taylor64(z, 15)
+                end
+            )
+        else
+            @E1_taylor64(z, 37)
+        end
     end
 end
-expint(z::Union{T,Complex{T},Rational{T},Complex{Rational{T}}}) where {T<:Integer} =
-    expint(float(z))
+function expint(
+    z::Union{T, Complex{T}, Rational{T}, Complex{Rational{T}}},
+) where {T <: Integer}
+    return expint(float(z))
+end
 
 ######################################################################
 # exponential integral Eₙ(z)
@@ -102,7 +111,7 @@ function expint(n::Integer, z)
         zinv = inv(z)
         exp_minus_z = exp(-z)
         Ei = zinv * exp_minus_z
-        for i = 1:-n
+        for i in 1:(-n)
             Ei = zinv * (exp_minus_z + i * Ei)
         end
         return Ei
@@ -111,7 +120,7 @@ function expint(n::Integer, z)
         exp_minus_z = exp(-z)
         Ei = expint(z)
         Ei *= !isinf(Ei)
-        for i = 2:n
+        for i in 2:n
             Ei = (exp_minus_z - z * Ei) / (i - 1)
         end
         return Ei
@@ -130,10 +139,10 @@ function csv_first_row(path)
     names = Tuple(Symbol.(split(header, ',')))
     ncol = length(names)
     # this assumes the first column is a time, the rest a float
-    types = Tuple{DateTime,fill(Float64, ncol - 1)...}
+    types = Tuple{DateTime, fill(Float64, ncol - 1)...}
 
     parts = split(dataline, ',')
     values = parse.(Float64, parts[2:end])
-    row = NamedTuple{names,types}((DateTime(parts[1]), values...))
+    row = NamedTuple{names, types}((DateTime(parts[1]), values...))
     return row
 end
diff --git a/test/vertical_process.jl b/test/vertical_process.jl
index 9ce59fb45..432b2844e 100644
--- a/test/vertical_process.jl
+++ b/test/vertical_process.jl
@@ -9,13 +9,13 @@ using Dates
     @test all(
         isapprox.(
             Wflow.rainfall_interception_modrut(8.6, 3.8, 1.5, 0.45, 2.8),
-            (4.343, 3.87, 0.387, 0.0, 3.8, 2.043),
+            (3.87, 3.8, 0.387, 2.043),
         ),
     )
     @test Wflow.head_brooks_corey(0.25, 0.6, 0.15, 10.5, -10.0) ≈ -90.6299820833844
-    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 3.5, Second(86400)) ≈ -412.5
-    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 0.5, Second(86400)) == -600.0
-    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 6.0, Second(86400)) == -300.0
+    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 3.5, 86400.0) ≈ -412.5
+    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 0.5, 86400.0) == -600.0
+    @test Wflow.feddes_h3(-300.0, -600.0, 6.0, 86400.0) == -300.0
     @test Wflow.rwu_reduction_feddes(0.0, -10.0, -100.0, -300.0, -15000.0, 0.0) == 0.0
     @test Wflow.rwu_reduction_feddes(0.0, -10.0, -100.0, -300.0, -15000.0, 1.0) == 1.0
     @test Wflow.rwu_reduction_feddes(-90.0, -10.0, -100.0, -412.5, -15000.0, 0.0) ≈
@@ -24,12 +24,7 @@ using Dates
     @test Wflow.rwu_reduction_feddes(-12000.0, -10.0, -100.0, -412.5, -15000.0, 0.0) ≈
           0.20565552699228792
     @test Wflow.rwu_reduction_feddes(-16000.0, -10.0, -100.0, -412.5, -15000.0, 0.0) == 0.0
-    @test all(
-        isapprox.(
-            Wflow.infiltration(27.5, 0.2, 0.038, 8.9, 50.0, 5.0, 23.5, false, false),
-            (23.5, 19.14814814814815, 4.351851851851852, 22.0, 5.5, 0.5, 1.0),
-        ),
-    )
+    @test all(isapprox.(Wflow.infiltration(27.5, 0.2, 50.0, 5.0, 23.5, 1.0), (23.5, 0.5)))
     @test all(
         isapprox.(
             Wflow.unsatzone_flow_layer(43.5, 256.0, 135.0, 12.6),
@@ -44,14 +39,20 @@ using Dates
     )
     @test all(
         isapprox.(
-            Wflow.snowpack_hbv(201.5, 15.0, 30.1, 0.54, 2.0, 0.0, 0.0, 2.5, 0.10),
-            (207.073, 20.707300000000004, 1.35, 18.819699999999997, 6.923),
+            Wflow.precipitation_hbv(30.1, 0.54, 2.0, 0.0),
+            (6.923, 23.177000000000003),
+        ),
+    )
+    @test all(
+        isapprox.(
+            Wflow.snowpack_hbv(201.5, 15.0, 6.923, 23.177, 0.54, 0.0, 2.5, 0.10),
+            (207.073, 20.707300000000004, 227.7803, 1.35, 18.819699999999997),
         ),
     )
     @test Wflow.scurve(2.0, 0.0, 3.0, 2.5) ≈ 0.3325863502664285
     @test all(
         isapprox.(
-            Wflow.glacier_hbv(0.35, 500.0, 9.5, 5.0, 0.0, 3.4, 0.2, Second(Day(1))),
+            Wflow.glacier_hbv(0.35, 500.0, 9.5, 5.0, 0.0, 3.4, 0.2, 8.0),
             (8.835, 1.9, 484.9, 17.0),
         ),
     )