README.md

Notes on Rust programming language, from the book

I just typed what I felt like should be noted while reading the book simultaneously.

Install rustup as a toolchain along with cargo.

Don't be afraid of compiler errors. They are very helpful and give very good information.

[TOC]

Cargo

• very good package manager for rust

cargo new <project_name> #create new project (binary)
cargo build #compile and check
cargo run #compile(if-not) and run the binary program

variables

• by default, variable is immutable.

make it mutable by mut

let mut x = 5;

constant vs immutable variables

• use const for constants because they are not meant to be changed ever.
• can't use const for values computed at runtime. like result of function calls.
• naming convention : use uppercase with underscores.

const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 1000_00;

Shadowing

• shadowing is declaring a new variable with the same name as a previous variable.

let x = 5;
let x = x+1;// don't use mut!

• it is not reassigning like we do with mut variables.
• benefit : we don't have to create a variable with different type for same data. If we need a num but the input is in string. we can use the same name to get the numeric value because it is literally redeclaring.

Data types

rust is statically typed

• rust usually guesses the type but we can explicitly tell it , ob.

Scalars

Integers

• signed i8 (integer8-bit) up to 128-bit or isize(architecture size)
• similar but u8

literals

• 98_222 = 98222 (!you can use _ as separator)

• 0xfff hex, Oo77 oct, 0b1111_000 binary, b'A' Byte(u8 only).

• while using --release flag, rust won't check for integer overflow . It performs two's compliment wrapping. ex: for u8 , 256 becomes 0,

  • prevents panic
  • you can use standard library type Wrapping for explicitly wrapping

floating points

• default is f64, else we have f32.

Numeric operations

• +, - , * , / , % . Same as usual

Boolean

• true or false

characters

• char : 4 bytes , Unicode Scalar Values range from U+0000 to U+D7FF and U+E000 to U+10FFFF inclusive

Compound Types

Tuple type

let tup: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);
let (x, y, z) = tup;// pattern matching : x = 500
let first_element = tup.0;

• destructuring: use pattern matching to get value breaks single tuple into multiple parts
• we can use (.) followed by index too!!

Array type

• Fixed sized

let a: [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let a = [3; 5]; //is same as
let a = [3, 3, 3, 3, 3];// 5 elements

• stack based , not as flexible as vectors
• accessing using index a[index]
• gives index out of bounds error if out of bounds

Functions

convention: use snake case.

Function parameters

• must declare type of each parameters

fn another_function(x: i32, y: i32) {...}

Statements and Expressions

rust is an expression-based language

• let x = (let y = 4); is invalid unlike C because let y = 4 doesn't yield a vlaue ; nothing to bind for x
• calling a function or macro , block creating new scopes ,{}, is an expression

let y = {
    let x = 3;
    x+1// look at this. NO SEMICOLON!!
} // this block/scope returns value 4

Function with return values

• we declare type of return values after an arrow (->)
• implicitly : return value is the last expression. keep in mind the facts about statement vs expressions.
• explicitly : we can use return keyword

fn main() {
    let x = plus_one(5);
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}
fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1 // Again no semicolon here.
}

• no evaluation leads to () empty tuple.

Comments

• no multi-line comment syntax.
• continue // for each line.
• /// documentation comment : generates HTML ; used with crates

Control Flow

if/else if expressions

• Same as C or JS for syntax
• condition must be bool.
• Blocks of code associated with the conditions in if expressions are sometimes called arms

Using if in a let statement

let number = if condition { 5 } else { "six" }; // error: both arms should evaluate to same data type

Loops

loop{}

• simple just loops code inside the block

let result = loop {
    counter += 1;
    if counter == 10 {
        break counter * 2;
    }
};

• use this with break.
• use case : One of the uses of a loop is to retry an operation you know might fail, such as checking whether a thread has completed its job. However, you might need to pass the result of that operation to the rest of your code.

while loops

• same as C/JS.

for loops

let a = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50];
for element in a.iter() {
    println!("the value is: {}", element);
}

• Range based: for number in (1..4).rev() . rev() is to reverse

Unique features in Rust

Ownership

How rust lays data in memory

ensures memory safety without garbage collector

• In other languages, programmer must explicitly handle the memory (allocation & deletion)
• In rust, we have ownership concept.

stack vs heap

• We use heap when the size of values at compile time is unknown.
• pushing in stack is faster because OS never has to search for a place to store new data unlike heap where OS has to search for space big enough to hold data
• accessing data in heap is slower because we have to follow a pointer to get there.

so cleaning up unused data , minimizing the amount of duplicate data so that we don't run out of space are all problems that ownership addresses.

Ownership rules

• Each value Rust has a variable that’s called its owner.
• There can be only one owner at a time.
• When the owner goes out of scope, the value will be dropped.

variable scopes

• Block scoped. like in JS/C++

String types and heap

• String types are allocated in heaps.
• let s = String::from("hello"); creating String from string literal
• string literals cannot be mutated but Strings can. Because we know the size of literals and can be hardcoded in the program. Strings are growable.

Memory and Allocation

• memory must be created and destroyed simultaneously. because there is no garbage collector; doing this is very hard. allocate and free
• rust is automatically returned once the variable goes out of scope. Calls drop function.

data interaction : Move

let s1 = String::from("hello");
let s2 = s1;

• Here, a stack is created with (ptr,len,capacity) ptr pointing to the heap of memory with data(hello)
• s2 = s1 : copies the ptr of s1(stack) to s2 ; pointing to same heap.
• But, when we go out of scope, both of them will try to free the same memory. Oops! double free error.

Rust manages this by making s1 invalid , which is what it calls move . Only s2 can free the memory.

data interaction : Clone

• let s2 = s1.clone() , deeply copies the heap data not just the stack data.

Stack only data: Copy

let x = 5;
let y = x;

• As we have learned, these basic types are stored in stack at compile time. So no need of any allocation,freeing or making it invalid.
• no need of clone here.

we have to keep in mind the Copy and Drop traits. Normally all those basic data types have Copy trait.

Ownership and functions

• going into function is going out of scope. non Copy traits are borrowed by the function and made invalid.

Return Values and Scope

• multiple values can be returned using tuples
• Just like function taking the ownership , returning it gives the ownership back. It is just changing the scopes
• If no one takes the ownership , going out of scope just destroys it.

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let (s2, len) = calculate_length(s1);
    println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s2, len);
}
fn calculate_length(s: String) -> (String, usize) {
    let length = s.len(); // len() returns the length of a String
    (s, length)
}

References and Borrowing

• So to avoid all those hassle, we can use refrence variables. &String
• We call it borrowing , like in real world
• also has dereferencing with deference operator

To make the reference variable mutable, we use &mut for mut variable

• We cannot borrow mutable reference more than once at a time in a particular scope.

• this is to prevent data race :

  • two or more pointers accessing same data
  • At least one is being used to write
  • no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data

• Just use curly braces { ... } to create a new scope.😉

• We also cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one

•     let mut s = String::from("hello");
  
    let r1 = &s; // no problem
    let r2 = &s; // no problem
    println!("{} and {}", r1, r2);
    // variables r1 and r2 will not be used after this point
  
    let r3 = &mut s; // no problem
    println!("{}", r3);
  

### Dangling references

- *`lifetimes`* help us a lot for such *dangling pointers*: pointers referencing a location in memory that may have been given to someone else.

### The Slice type

- while slicing byte by byte, we are normally working on starting index and ending index. Though these indices may be found, we can't possibly use this since the state of `String` that we are working on might change it's state.

#### String Slices

```rust
let s = String::from("hello world");
let hello = &s[0..5];
let world = &s[6..11];

• new slice with different pointer is created.
• [starting_index..ending_index]
• [0..2] <=> [..2] ; [3..length_of_string] <=> [3..] ; [0..length_of_string] <=> [..]
• these types of slices are returned/used as &str (string slice) types
• &str are immutable.

And.. String literals are &str.

• Don't mess up with immutable/mutable borrowing rule

• UTF-8 encoded text might be multibyte. So we need to take care of that too

String Slices as parameters

• It is better to pass string slice &string[..] (whole string) as parameter instead of whole string &string.

Other slices

• We can use slices for arrays too let slice = &array[1..3];

Using Structs to structure related data

struct User {
    username: String,
    email: String,
    sign_in_count: u64,
    active: bool,
} // struct definition

• data inside curly braces are called fields

let user1 = User {
    //key:value
    email: String::from("[email protected]"),
    username: String::from("someusername123"),
    active: true,
    sign_in_count: 1,   
};// creaing an instance of the User struct

• To change the value, instance must be mutable too!

Fields init Shorthand

• When the parameters are same as the key , we can omit that

fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User {
    User {
        email, // instead of email:email;
        username,
        active: true,
        sign_in_count: 1,
    }
}

Creating instances from Other Instance

struct update syntax

let user2 = User {
        email: String::from("[email protected]"),
        username: String::from("anotherusername567"),
        ..user1 // rest of the values are same as that of user1
    };

Create different Types using tuple structs

Tuple structs : structs without named fields

struct Color(i32, i32, i32);
let black = Color(0, 0, 0);

• You cannot pass many tuple structs with same fields as a parameter for a function : Behaves like tuples

• again, keep in mind the lifetime parameter. (Explained later)

Printing structure for debugging

// here add this. This is called deriving Debug Trait
#[derive(Debug)] 
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}
fn main() {
    let rect1 = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };
    println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1); //Notice the :? inside
    // prints rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50 }
}

• println!("rect1 is {:?#}", rect1); even prints with line breaks (pretty print)

Methods

Defining Methods

//after defining struct in above code
impl Rectangle {
    fn area(&self) -> u32 {
        self.width * self.height
}

• &self knows that it is &Rectangle because it is implemented inside imp Rectangle context.
• &self because we want to borrow the ownership when we have to read.
• we'd use &mut self to change the instance that we’ve called the method on as part of what the method does.

Where's the -> operator?

• Rust has automatic referencing and dereferencing while calling methods. so it automatically adds in &, &mut, or * so object matches the signature of the method.
• This automatic referencing behavior works because methods have a clear receiver—the type of self

Methods with more parameters

• rect1.can_hold(&rect2));. here one instance has a method taking another instance as a parameter.
• To use this we add this in the imp Rectangle block:

fn can_hold(&self, other: &Rectangle) -> bool {
    ...
}

so &self makes rust clear which instance it is taking about.

Associated Functions

useful for creating Constructors

impl Rectangle {
    fn square(size: u32) -> Rectangle {
        Rectangle { width: size, height: size }
    }
}

• to call this we use let sq = Rectangle::square(3).
• The function is namespaced by the struct

Multiple impl Blocks

We can use many such impl { } blocks for the same struct. (useful for generic types and traits)

Enums and pattern matching

• enums : enumerations : types that enumerates its possible values.

Defining an enum

enum IpAddressKind {
   V4,
   V6,
}

• let four = IpAddrKind::V4; : variants of the enum are namespaced under its identifier and we use :: to resolve the namespace.
• enums are useful when used along with structs since an enum is a type like this:

struct IpAddr {
    kind: IpAddrKind,
    address: String,
}
fn main() {
    let home = IpAddr {
        kind: IpAddrKind::V4,
        address: String::from("127.0.0.1"),
    };
}

• But we can use it directly too like this:

enum IpAddressKind {
    V4(u8,u8,u8,u8),
    V6(String),
}
let home = IpAddr::V4(192,168,1,1);
let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1"));

checkout standard library for IpAddr

• The real benefit of enum rather than using multiple structs is to define a function. Remember impl from structure using &self.

Option Enum and its advantages over Null values

• There is no Null value in rust. Why?

The problem with null values is that if you try to use a null value as a not-null value, you’ll get an error of some kind. Because this null or not-null property is pervasive, it’s extremely easy to make this kind of error.

• But null concept is still useful so rust has an Option 😉. It has Option<T>enum for that.

enum Option<T> {
    Some(T),
    None,
}

• Being so useful, it can be used without bringing it to scope. which means we can use Some(T) and None without Option:: prefix.

• let some_number = Some(5); we know what value is present

• let absent_number: Option<i32> = None; we don't have a value; essentially a null value.

Remember! Option<T> and T are not the same type

• The reason why Option<T> is that we are explicitly deciding that we are going to handle cases that might have null or some value.
• So to use a value of type T from Option<T> when the code is handled , what control flow operator can be used ? match operator

match control flow operator

• compares values against a series of pattern.
• Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable names, wildcards, and many other thing
• code associated with the pattern matched first will be executed.

enum UsState {
    Alabama,
    Alaska,
    // --snip--
}
enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter(UsState),
}

value_in_cents(Coin::Quarter(UsState::Alaska)); //will match with

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => 1,
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter(state) => { // will match with this 
            println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state);
            25
        }
    }
}

• as we can see, we can match the enums within the enums.

Matching with Option

• to get the value of T from Option we use it like this:

fn plus_one(x: Option<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
    match x {
        None => None,
        Some(i) => Some(i + 1), // plus_one(five) below matched this
    }
}
let five = Some(5);
let six = plus_one(five);

• We pass Some value to match an Option<T> type and match it.

Matches are exhaustive : So there must be an *match arm for every possible cases. Rust will throw error otherwise. It's good. Handles everything. But there is a solution for that too. (_ palceholder)

The _ placeholder

• whenever we don't want/have to list all possible value , we can use _ pattern and link it => with ():a unit value which is basically nothing.

let some_u8_value = Some(0u8);
match some_u8_value {
    Some(3) => println!("three"),
    _ => (),
}

if let control flow

• the above code is equivalent to:

if let Some(3) = some_u8_value {
    println!("three");
}

• We want to do something with the Some(3) match but do nothing with any other Some<u8> value or the None value
• works the same way as match . However, we loose the exhaustive checking.
• also works with the same logic that we used for matching enums within enums