diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/__main__.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/__main__.py
index 00e58fd1..1d369f3c 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/__main__.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/__main__.py
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@
 def _loaded_plugins(pm: PluginManager) -> str:
     from .utils import type_as_import_string
 
-    plugins: List[str] = []
+    plugins: list[str] = []
     for (name, plugin) in pm.list_name_plugin():
         if not name:
             continue
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ def _loaded_plugins(pm: PluginManager) -> str:
     return f"Plugins Loaded: {', '.join(plugins)}"
 
 
-def main(general: General, model_conf: "Mapping[str, Any]"):
+def main(general: General, model_conf: Mapping[str, Any]):
     #seed the random number generators if requested
     if general.random_seed is not None:
         import random
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ def main(general: General, model_conf: "Mapping[str, Any]"):
             print("Restart not supported for PSO search, starting at 0")
         func = pso_search
 
-    print("Starting Iteration: {}".format(start_iteration))
+    print(f"Starting Iteration: {start_iteration}")
     # print("Starting Best param: {}".format(meta.best_params))
     # print("Starting Best score: {}".format(meta.best_score))
     print("Starting calibration loop")
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/_hookspec.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/_hookspec.py
index 5b5f6ee6..c046dbc6 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/_hookspec.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/_hookspec.py
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@
     from ngen.cal.configuration import General
     from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
     from pandas import Series
-    from pathlib import Path
 
 hookspec = pluggy.HookspecMarker(PROJECT_SLUG)
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/agent.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/agent.py
index ab0da88d..4f124c8d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/agent.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/agent.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
 from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
 from ngen.cal.configuration import Model
@@ -5,7 +7,7 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from typing import Sequence, Optional, Mapping, Any
+    from typing import Sequence, Mapping, Any
     from pandas import DataFrame
     from pathlib import Path
     from ngen.cal.calibratable import Adjustable
@@ -13,7 +15,7 @@
 class BaseAgent(ABC):
 
     @property
-    def adjustables(self) -> 'Sequence[Adjustable]':
+    def adjustables(self) -> Sequence[Adjustable]:
         return self.model.adjustables
 
     def restart(self) -> int:
@@ -29,15 +31,15 @@ def restart(self) -> int:
     
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def model(self) -> 'Model':
+    def model(self) -> Model:
         pass
 
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def job(self) -> 'JobMeta':
+    def job(self) -> JobMeta:
         pass
     
-    def update_config(self, i: int, params: 'DataFrame', id: str):
+    def update_config(self, i: int, params: DataFrame, id: str):
         """
             For a given calibration iteration, i, update the input files/configuration to prepare for that iterations
             calibration run.
@@ -57,7 +59,7 @@ def best_params(self) -> str:
 
 class Agent(BaseAgent):
 
-    def __init__(self, model_conf, workdir: 'Path', log: bool=False, restart: bool=False, parameters: 'Optional[Mapping[str, Any]]' = {}):
+    def __init__(self, model_conf, workdir: Path, log: bool=False, restart: bool=False, parameters: Mapping[str, Any] | None = {}):
         self._workdir = workdir
         self._job = None
         if restart:
@@ -86,11 +88,11 @@ def __init__(self, model_conf, workdir: 'Path', log: bool=False, restart: bool=F
         self._params = parameters
     
     @property
-    def parameters(self) -> 'Mapping[str, Any]':
+    def parameters(self) -> Mapping[str, Any]:
         return self._params
 
     @property
-    def workdir(self) -> 'Path':
+    def workdir(self) -> Path:
         return self._workdir
 
     @property
@@ -106,9 +108,9 @@ def cmd(self) -> str:
         """
             Proxy method to build command from contained model binary and args
         """
-        return "{} {}".format(self.model.get_binary(), self.model.get_args())
+        return f"{self.model.get_binary()} {self.model.get_args()}"
 
-    def duplicate(self) -> 'Agent':
+    def duplicate(self) -> Agent:
         #serialize a copy of the model
         #FIXME ??? if you do self.model.resolve_paths() here, the duplicated agent
         #doesn't have fully qualified paths...but if you do it in constructor, it works fine...
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibratable.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibratable.py
index ce3f2f2b..745fa647 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibratable.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibratable.py
@@ -2,14 +2,14 @@
 
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
 from pandas import Series, read_parquet # type: ignore
-from typing import Optional, TYPE_CHECKING
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from pathlib import Path
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pandas import DataFrame, Series
     from pathlib import Path
     from datetime import datetime
-    from typing import Tuple, Callable, Optional
+    from typing import Callable
     from ngen.cal.model import EvaluationOptions
     from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
 
@@ -18,11 +18,11 @@ class Adjustable(ABC):
         An Adjustable interface defning required properties for adjusting an object's state
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, df: Optional['DataFrame'] = None):
+    def __init__(self, df: DataFrame | None = None):
         self._df = df
 
     @property
-    def df(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def df(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             A dataframe of the objects parameter values to calculate indexed relative to the variables
             being calibrated.  The columns of the dataframe will be appended to with each search iterations
@@ -46,14 +46,14 @@ def id(self) -> str:
         pass
 
     @property
-    def variables(self) -> 'Series':
+    def variables(self) -> Series:
         """
             Index series of variables
         """
         return Series(self.df.index.values)
 
     @property
-    def bounds(self) -> 'Tuple[Series, Series]':
+    def bounds(self) -> tuple[Series, Series]:
         """The bounds of each parameter that is adjustable
 
         Returns:
@@ -77,11 +77,11 @@ def update_params(self, iteration: int) -> None:
         pass
 
     @property
-    def check_point_file(self) -> 'Path':
+    def check_point_file(self) -> Path:
         """
             Filename checkpoint files are saved to
         """
-        return Path('{}_parameter_df_state.parquet'.format(self.id))
+        return Path(f'{self.id}_parameter_df_state.parquet')
 
     def check_point(self, iteration: int, info: JobMeta) -> None:
         """
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ def check_point(self, iteration: int, info: JobMeta) -> None:
         path = info.workdir
         self.df.to_parquet(path/self.check_point_file)
 
-    def load_df(self, path: 'Path') -> None:
+    def load_df(self, path: Path) -> None:
         """
             Load saved calibration information
         """
@@ -104,9 +104,9 @@ class Evaluatable(ABC):
         An Evaluatable interface defining required properties for a evaluating and object's state
     """
 
-    eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions'
+    eval_params: EvaluationOptions
 
-    def __init__(self, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions', **kwargs):
+    def __init__(self, eval_params: EvaluationOptions, **kwargs):
         """
         Args:
             eval_params (EvaluationOptions): The options configuring this evaluatable
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ def __init__(self, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions', **kwargs):
 
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def output(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def output(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The output data for the calibrated object
             Calibration re-reads the output each call, as the output for given calibration is expected to change
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ def output(self) -> 'DataFrame':
 
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def observed(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def observed(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The observed data for this calibratable.
             This should be rather static, and can be set at initialization then accessed via the property
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ def observed(self) -> 'DataFrame':
 
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def evaluation_range(self) -> 'Optional[Tuple[datetime, datetime]]':
+    def evaluation_range(self) -> tuple[datetime, datetime] | None:
         """
             The datetime range to evaluate the model results at.
             This should be a tuple in the form of (start_time, end_time).
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ def evaluation_range(self) -> 'Optional[Tuple[datetime, datetime]]':
         pass
     
     @property
-    def objective(self, *args, **kwargs) -> 'Callable':
+    def objective(self, *args, **kwargs) -> Callable:
         """
             The objective function to compute cost values with.
 
@@ -191,5 +191,5 @@ class Calibratable(Adjustable, Evaluatable):
     """
         A Calibratable interface defining required properties for a calibratable object
     """
-    def __init__(self, df: Optional['DataFrame'] = None):
+    def __init__(self, df: DataFrame | None = None):
         Adjustable.__init__(self, df)
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_cathment.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_cathment.py
index f15067bb..c99d7a29 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_cathment.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_cathment.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pandas import DataFrame, read_csv # type: ignore
 import shutil
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
@@ -7,7 +9,6 @@
     from pathlib import Path
     from geopandas import GeoSeries
     from datetime import datetime
-    from typing import Tuple, Optional
     from .model import EvaluationOptions
 
 from hypy.catchment import FormulatableCatchment # type: ignore
@@ -21,7 +22,7 @@ class AdjustableCatchment(FormulatableCatchment, Adjustable):
         parameteters used by the catchment.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self,  workdir: 'Path', id: str, nexus, params: dict = {}):
+    def __init__(self,  workdir: Path, id: str, nexus, params: dict = {}):
         """Create an adjustable catchment and initialize its parameter space
 
         Args:
@@ -34,7 +35,7 @@ def __init__(self,  workdir: 'Path', id: str, nexus, params: dict = {}):
         FormulatableCatchment.__init__(self=self, catchment_id=id, params=params, outflow=nexus)
         Adjustable.__init__(self=self, df=DataFrame(params).rename(columns={'init': '0'}))
         #FIXME paramterize
-        self._output_file = workdir/'{}.csv'.format(self.id)
+        self._output_file = workdir/f'{self.id}.csv'
         self._workdir = workdir
     
     def save_output(self, i) -> None:
@@ -43,7 +44,7 @@ def save_output(self, i) -> None:
         """
         #FIXME ensure _output_file exists
         #FIXME re-enable this once more complete
-        shutil.move(self._output_file, '{}_last'.format(self._output_file))
+        shutil.move(self._output_file, f'{self._output_file}_last')
     
     #update handled in meta, TODO remove this method???
     def update_params(self, iteration: int) -> None:
@@ -54,7 +55,7 @@ class EvaluatableCatchment(Evaluatable):
         A catchment which is "observable" which means model output can be evaluated against
         these observations for this catchment.
     """
-    def __init__(self, nexus: Nexus, start_time: str, end_time: str, fabric: "GeoSeries", output_var: str, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions'):
+    def __init__(self, nexus: Nexus, start_time: str, end_time: str, fabric: GeoSeries, output_var: str, eval_params: EvaluationOptions):
         """Initialize the evaluatable catchment
 
         Args:
@@ -81,11 +82,11 @@ def __init__(self, nexus: Nexus, start_time: str, end_time: str, fabric: "GeoSer
         self._eval_range = self.eval_params._eval_range
         
     @property
-    def evaluation_range(self) -> 'Optional[Tuple[datetime, datetime]]':
+    def evaluation_range(self) -> tuple[datetime, datetime] | None:
         return self._eval_range
 
     @property
-    def output(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def output(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The model output hydrograph for this catchment
             This re-reads the output file each call, as the output for given calibration catchment changes
@@ -112,13 +113,13 @@ def output(self, df):
         self._output = df
 
     @property
-    def observed(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def observed(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The observed hydrograph for this catchment FIXME move output/observed to calibratable?
         """
         hydrograph = self._observed
         if hydrograph is None:
-            raise(RuntimeError("Error reading observation for {}".format(self._id)))
+            raise(RuntimeError(f"Error reading observation for {self._id}"))
         return hydrograph
 
     @observed.setter
@@ -129,7 +130,7 @@ class CalibrationCatchment(AdjustableCatchment, EvaluatableCatchment):
     """
         A Calibratable interface defining required properties for a calibratable object
     """
-    def __init__(self, workdir: str, id: str, nexus: Nexus, start_time: str, end_time: str, fabric: "GeoSeries", output_var: str, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions', params: dict = {}):
+    def __init__(self, workdir: str, id: str, nexus: Nexus, start_time: str, end_time: str, fabric: GeoSeries, output_var: str, eval_params: EvaluationOptions, params: dict = {}):
         EvaluatableCatchment.__init__(self, nexus, start_time, end_time, fabric, output_var, eval_params)
         AdjustableCatchment.__init__(self,  workdir, id, nexus, params)
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_set.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_set.py
index c750a88f..13a0a082 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_set.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/calibration_set.py
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from pandas import DataFrame# type: ignore
-import shutil
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Sequence
-import pandas as pd
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pandas import DataFrame
     from pathlib import Path
     from datetime import datetime
-    from typing import Tuple, Optional
     from ngen.cal._hookspec import ModelHooks
     from ngen.cal.model import EvaluationOptions
     from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
 
-import os
 from pathlib import Path
-import warnings
 from hypy.nexus import Nexus
 from .calibratable import Adjustable, Evaluatable
 
@@ -25,7 +20,7 @@ class CalibrationSet(Evaluatable):
         A HY_Features based catchment with additional calibration information/functionality
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, adjustables: Sequence[Adjustable], eval_nexus: Nexus, hooks: ModelHooks, start_time: str, end_time: str, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions'):
+    def __init__(self, adjustables: Sequence[Adjustable], eval_nexus: Nexus, hooks: ModelHooks, start_time: str, end_time: str, eval_params: EvaluationOptions):
         """
 
         """
@@ -46,7 +41,7 @@ def __init__(self, adjustables: Sequence[Adjustable], eval_nexus: Nexus, hooks:
         self._eval_range = self.eval_params._eval_range
     
     @property
-    def evaluation_range(self) -> 'Optional[Tuple[datetime, datetime]]':
+    def evaluation_range(self) -> tuple[datetime, datetime] | None:
         return self._eval_range
 
     @property
@@ -54,7 +49,7 @@ def adjustables(self):
         return self._adjustables
 
     @property
-    def output(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def output(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The model output hydrograph for this catchment
             This re-reads the output file each call, as the output for given calibration catchment changes
@@ -77,13 +72,13 @@ def output(self, df):
         self._output = df
 
     @property
-    def observed(self) -> 'DataFrame':
+    def observed(self) -> DataFrame:
         """
             The observed hydrograph for this catchment FIXME move output/observed to calibratable?
         """
         hydrograph = self._observed
         if hydrograph is None:
-            raise(RuntimeError("Error reading observation for {}".format(self._id)))
+            raise(RuntimeError(f"Error reading observation for {self._id}"))
         return hydrograph
 
     @observed.setter
@@ -112,7 +107,7 @@ class UniformCalibrationSet(CalibrationSet, Adjustable):
         A HY_Features based catchment with additional calibration information/functionality
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, eval_nexus: Nexus, hooks: ModelHooks, start_time: str, end_time: str, eval_params: 'EvaluationOptions', params: dict = {}):
+    def __init__(self, eval_nexus: Nexus, hooks: ModelHooks, start_time: str, end_time: str, eval_params: EvaluationOptions, params: dict = {}):
         """
 
         """
@@ -137,8 +132,8 @@ def update_params(self, iteration: int) -> None:
 
     #Override this file name
     @property
-    def check_point_file(self) -> 'Path':
-        return Path('{}_parameter_df_state.parquet'.format(self._eval_nexus.id))
+    def check_point_file(self) -> Path:
+        return Path(f'{self._eval_nexus.id}_parameter_df_state.parquet')
 
     def restart(self):
         try:
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/meta.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/meta.py
index 871df1ab..8eb26bc9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/meta.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/meta.py
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
-import pandas as pd # type: ignore
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pathlib import Path
 from tempfile import mkdtemp
 from datetime import datetime
@@ -31,17 +32,17 @@ def __init__(self, name: str, parent_workdir: Path, workdir: Path=None, log=Fals
             self._log_file = self._workdir/Path(name+".log")
 
     @property
-    def workdir(self) -> 'Path':
+    def workdir(self) -> Path:
         return self._workdir
     
     @workdir.setter
-    def workdir(self, path: 'Path') -> None:
+    def workdir(self, path: Path) -> None:
         self._workdir = path
         if self._log_file is not None:
             self._log_file = self._workdir/Path(self._log_file.name)
 
     @property
-    def log_file(self) -> 'Path':
+    def log_file(self) -> Path:
         """
             Path to the job's log file, or None.
         """
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/model.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/model.py
index 00a31b2a..006b4c51 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/model.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/model.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel, DirectoryPath, conint, PyObject, validator, Field, root_validator
 from typing import Any, cast, Callable, Dict, List, Optional, Tuple, Union
 from types import ModuleType, FunctionType
@@ -114,14 +116,14 @@ def update(self, i: int, score: float, log: bool) -> None:
 
     def write_objective_log_file(self, i, score):
         with open(self.objective_log_file, 'a+') as log_file:
-            log_file.write('{}, '.format(i))
-            log_file.write('{}\n'.format(score))
+            log_file.write(f'{i}, ')
+            log_file.write(f'{score}\n')
     
     def write_param_log_file(self, i):
         with open(self.param_log_file, 'w+') as log_file:
-            log_file.write('{}\n'.format(i))
-            log_file.write('{}\n'.format(self.best_params))
-            log_file.write('{}\n'.format(self.best_score))
+            log_file.write(f'{i}\n')
+            log_file.write(f'{self.best_params}\n')
+            log_file.write(f'{self.best_score}\n')
 
     @property
     def best_score(self) -> float:
@@ -181,7 +183,7 @@ def validate_objective(cls, value):
         return value
 
     def read_param_log_file(self):
-        with open(self.param_log_file, 'r') as log_file:
+        with open(self.param_log_file) as log_file:
             iteration = int(log_file.readline())
             best_params = int(log_file.readline())
             best_score = float(log_file.readline())
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen.py
index e78a312a..661d92c9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import FilePath, root_validator, BaseModel, Field
-from typing import Optional, Sequence, Dict, Mapping, Union
+from typing import Optional, Sequence, Mapping, Union
 try: #to get literal in python 3.7, it was added to typing in 3.8
     from typing import Literal
 except ImportError:
@@ -22,7 +24,7 @@
 from .parameter import Parameter, Parameters
 from .calibration_cathment import CalibrationCatchment, AdjustableCatchment
 from .calibration_set import CalibrationSet, UniformCalibrationSet
-from .ngen_hooks.ngen_output import TrouteOutput, NgenSaveOutput
+from .ngen_hooks.ngen_output import TrouteOutput
 #HyFeatures components
 from hypy.hydrolocation import NWISLocation
 from hypy.nexus import Nexus
@@ -94,7 +96,7 @@ class NgenBase(ModelExec):
     args: Optional[str]
 
     #private, not validated
-    _catchments: Sequence['CalibrationCatchment'] = []
+    _catchments: Sequence[CalibrationCatchment] = []
     _catchment_hydro_fabric: gpd.GeoDataFrame
     _nexus_hydro_fabric: gpd.GeoDataFrame
     _flowpath_hydro_fabric: gpd.GeoDataFrame
@@ -214,7 +216,7 @@ def config_file(self) -> Path:
         return self.realization
 
     @property
-    def adjustables(self) -> Sequence['CalibrationCatchment']:
+    def adjustables(self) -> Sequence[CalibrationCatchment]:
         """A list of Catchments for calibration
         
         These catchments hold information about the parameters/calibration data for that catchment
@@ -225,7 +227,7 @@ def adjustables(self) -> Sequence['CalibrationCatchment']:
         return self._catchments
 
     @root_validator
-    def set_defaults(cls, values: Dict):
+    def set_defaults(cls, values: dict):
         """Compose default values 
 
             This validator will set/adjust the following data values for the class
@@ -253,9 +255,9 @@ def set_defaults(cls, values: Dict):
         custom_args = False
         if args is None:
             if hydrofabric is not None:
-                args = '{} "all" {} "all" {}'.format(hydrofabric.resolve(), hydrofabric.resolve(), realization.name)
+                args = f'{hydrofabric.resolve()} "all" {hydrofabric.resolve()} "all" {realization.name}'
             else:
-                args = '{} "all" {} "all" {}'.format(catchments.resolve(), nexus.resolve(), realization.name)
+                args = f'{catchments.resolve()} "all" {nexus.resolve()} "all" {realization.name}'
             values['args'] = args
         else:
             custom_args = True
@@ -348,7 +350,7 @@ def _verify_ngen_realization(realization: Optional[NgenRealization]) -> None:
                 "ngen realization `output_root` field is not supported by ngen.cal. will be removed in future; see https://github.com/NOAA-OWP/ngen-cal/issues/150"
             )
 
-    def update_config(self, i: int, params: 'pd.DataFrame', id: str = None, path=Path("./")):
+    def update_config(self, i: int, params: pd.DataFrame, id: str = None, path=Path("./")):
         """_summary_
 
         Args:
@@ -401,11 +403,11 @@ def __init__(self, **kwargs):
                 try:
                     nwis = self._x_walk[id]
                 except KeyError:
-                    raise(RuntimeError("Cannot establish mapping of catchment {} to nwis location in cross walk".format(id)))
+                    raise(RuntimeError(f"Cannot establish mapping of catchment {id} to nwis location in cross walk"))
                 try:
                     nexus_data = self._nexus_hydro_fabric.loc[fabric['toid']]
                 except KeyError:
-                    raise(RuntimeError("No suitable nexus found for catchment {}".format(id)))
+                    raise(RuntimeError(f"No suitable nexus found for catchment {id}"))
 
                 #establish the hydro location for the observation nexus associated with this catchment
                 location = NWISLocation(nwis, nexus_data.name, nexus_data.geometry)
@@ -419,7 +421,7 @@ def __init__(self, **kwargs):
                 eval_params.id = id
                 self._catchments.append(CalibrationCatchment(self.workdir, id, nexus, start_t, end_t, fabric, output_var, eval_params, params))
 
-    def update_config(self, i: int, params: 'pd.DataFrame', id: str, **kwargs):
+    def update_config(self, i: int, params: pd.DataFrame, id: str, **kwargs):
         """_summary_
 
         Args:
@@ -482,7 +484,7 @@ def __init__(self, **kwargs):
             try:
                 nexus_data = self._nexus_hydro_fabric.loc[fabric['toid']]
             except KeyError:
-                raise(RuntimeError("No suitable nexus found for catchment {}".format(id)))
+                raise(RuntimeError(f"No suitable nexus found for catchment {id}"))
             nwis = None
             try:
                 nwis = self._x_walk.loc[id.replace('cat', 'wb')]
@@ -608,7 +610,7 @@ def restart(self) -> int:
     def type(self):
         return self.__root__.type
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional[Path]=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         """resolve any possible relative paths in the realization
         """
         if self.__root__.ngen_realization != None:
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen_hooks/ngen_output.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen_hooks/ngen_output.py
index 03f553bb..a0362f8d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen_hooks/ngen_output.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/ngen_hooks/ngen_output.py
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ def get_output(self, id: str) -> Series:
             output.name="sim_flow"
             return output
         except FileNotFoundError:
-            print("{} not found. Current working directory is {}".format(self._output_file, Path.cwd()))
+            print(f"{self._output_file} not found. Current working directory is {Path.cwd()}")
             print("Setting output to None")
             return None
         except Exception as e:
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/objectives.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/objectives.py
index 573df159..b84b38a0 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/objectives.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/objectives.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-import pandas as pd # type: ignore
 from hydrotools.metrics.metrics import *
 
 weights = [0.4, 0.2, 0.4]
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/parameter.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/parameter.py
index 4c6fefa9..8f83dc7e 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/parameter.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/parameter.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
 from typing import Sequence
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/plot.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/plot.py
index d059e448..3256e4b2 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/plot.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/plot.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import geopandas as gpd
 import pandas as pd
 import json
@@ -12,7 +14,7 @@
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pathlib import Path
 
-def plot_objective(objective_log_file: 'Path'):
+def plot_objective(objective_log_file: Path):
     """
         Plot the objective funtion
     """
@@ -39,7 +41,7 @@ def plot_stuff(workdir, catchment_data, nexus_data, cross_walk, config_file):
         start_t = data['time']['start_time']
         end_t = data['time']['end_time']
     except KeyError as e:
-        raise(RuntimeError("Invalid time configuration: {} key missing from {}".format(e.args[0], config_file)))
+        raise(RuntimeError(f"Invalid time configuration: {e.args[0]} key missing from {config_file}"))
 
     #Setup each calibration catchment
     for id, catchment in data['catchments'].items():
@@ -52,11 +54,11 @@ def plot_stuff(workdir, catchment_data, nexus_data, cross_walk, config_file):
             try:
                 nwis = x_walk[id]['site_no']
             except KeyError:
-                raise(RuntimeError("Cannot establish mapping of catchment {} to nwis location in cross walk".format(id)))
+                raise(RuntimeError(f"Cannot establish mapping of catchment {id} to nwis location in cross walk"))
             try:
                 nexus_data = nexus_hydro_fabric.loc[fabric['toID']]
             except KeyError:
-                raise(RuntimeError("No suitable nexus found for catchment {}".format(id)))
+                raise(RuntimeError(f"No suitable nexus found for catchment {id}"))
 
             #establish the hydro location for the observation nexus associated with this catchment
             location = NWISLocation(nwis, nexus_data.name, nexus_data.geometry)
@@ -82,15 +84,15 @@ def plot_obs(id, catchment_data, nexus_data, cross_walk):
     try:
         fabric = catchment_hydro_fabric.loc[id]
     except KeyError:
-        raise(RuntimeError("No data for id {}".format(id)))
+        raise(RuntimeError(f"No data for id {id}"))
     try:
         nwis = x_walk[id]['site_no']
     except KeyError:
-        raise(RuntimeError("Cannot establish mapping of catchment {} to nwis location in cross walk".format(id)))
+        raise(RuntimeError(f"Cannot establish mapping of catchment {id} to nwis location in cross walk"))
     try:
         nexus_data = nexus_hydro_fabric.loc[fabric['toID']]
     except KeyError:
-        raise(RuntimeError("No suitable nexus found for catchment {}".format(id)))
+        raise(RuntimeError(f"No suitable nexus found for catchment {id}"))
 
     #establish the hydro location for the observation nexus associated with this catchment
     location = NWISLocation(nwis, nexus_data.name, nexus_data.geometry)
@@ -103,9 +105,9 @@ def plot_obs(id, catchment_data, nexus_data, cross_walk):
     obs = obs * 0.028316847 #convert to m^3/s
     obs.rename('obs_flow', inplace=True)
     plt.figure()
-    obs.plot(title='Observation at USGS {}'.format(nwis))
+    obs.plot(title=f'Observation at USGS {nwis}')
 
-def plot_output(output_file: 'Path'):
+def plot_output(output_file: Path):
     #output = pd.read_csv(output_file, usecols=["Time", "Flow"], parse_dates=['Time'], index_col='Time')
     #output.rename(columns={'Flow':'sim_flow'}, inplace=True)
     output = pd.read_csv(output_file, parse_dates=['Time'], index_col='Time')
@@ -116,7 +118,7 @@ def plot_output(output_file: 'Path'):
     plt.figure()
     output['Flow'].plot(title='simulated flow')
 
-def plot_parameter_space(path: 'Path'):
+def plot_parameter_space(path: Path):
     params = pd.read_parquet(path)
     params.drop(columns=['min', 'max', 'sigma'], inplace=True)
     params.set_index('param', inplace=True)
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/search.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/search.py
index 022dc22d..74fef2dc 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/search.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/search.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import subprocess
 import pandas as pd # type: ignore
 from math import log
@@ -9,7 +11,6 @@
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from ngen.cal import Adjustable, Evaluatable
     from ngen.cal.agent import Agent
-    from typing import Tuple, Optional
     from datetime import datetime
 
 
@@ -21,7 +22,7 @@
 """
 __iteration_counter = 0
 
-def _objective_func(simulated_hydrograph, observed_hydrograph, objective, eval_range: 'Optional[Tuple[datetime, datetime]]' = None):
+def _objective_func(simulated_hydrograph, observed_hydrograph, objective, eval_range: tuple[datetime, datetime] | None = None):
     df = pd.merge(simulated_hydrograph, observed_hydrograph, left_index=True, right_index=True)
     if df.empty:
         print("WARNING: Cannot compute objective function, do time indicies align?")
@@ -31,7 +32,7 @@ def _objective_func(simulated_hydrograph, observed_hydrograph, objective, eval_r
     #Evaluate custom objective function providing simulated, observed series
     return objective(df['obs_flow'], df['sim_flow'])
 
-def _execute(meta: 'Agent'):
+def _execute(meta: Agent):
     """
         Execute a model run defined by the calibration meta cmd
     """
@@ -41,7 +42,7 @@ def _execute(meta: 'Agent'):
         with open(meta.job.log_file, 'a+') as log_file:
             subprocess.check_call(meta.cmd, stdout=log_file, stderr=log_file, shell=True, cwd=meta.job.workdir)
 
-def _evaluate(i: int, calibration_object: 'Evaluatable', info=False) -> float:
+def _evaluate(i: int, calibration_object: Evaluatable, info=False) -> float:
     """
         Performs the evaluation logic of a calibration step
     """
@@ -51,25 +52,25 @@ def _evaluate(i: int, calibration_object: 'Evaluatable', info=False) -> float:
     #update meta info based on latest score and write some log files
     calibration_object.update(i, score, log=True)
     if info:
-        print("Current score {}\nBest score {}".format(score, calibration_object.best_score))
-        print("Best parameters at iteration {}".format(calibration_object.best_params))
+        print(f"Current score {score}\nBest score {calibration_object.best_score}")
+        print(f"Best parameters at iteration {calibration_object.best_params}")
     return score
 
-def dds_update(iteration: int, inclusion_probability: float, calibration_object: 'Adjustable', agent: 'Agent'):
+def dds_update(iteration: int, inclusion_probability: float, calibration_object: Adjustable, agent: Agent):
     """_summary_
 
     Args:
         iteration (int): _description_
     """
 
-    print( "inclusion probability: {}".format(inclusion_probability) )
+    print( f"inclusion probability: {inclusion_probability}" )
     #select a random subset of variables to modify
     #TODO convince myself that grabbing a random selction of P fraction of items
     #is the same as selecting item with probability P
     neighborhood = calibration_object.variables.sample(frac=inclusion_probability)
     if neighborhood.empty:
         neighborhood = calibration_object.variables.sample(n=1)
-    print( "neighborhood: {}".format(neighborhood) )
+    print( f"neighborhood: {neighborhood}" )
     #Copy the best parameter values so far into the next iterations parameter list
     calibration_object.df[str(iteration)] = calibration_object.df[agent.best_params]
     #print( data.calibration_df )
@@ -100,7 +101,7 @@ def dds_update(iteration: int, inclusion_probability: float, calibration_object:
     agent.update_config(iteration, calibration_object.df[[str(iteration), 'param', 'model']], calibration_object.id)
 
 
-def dds(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  calibration_object: 'Evaluatable', agent: 'Agent'):
+def dds(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  calibration_object: Evaluatable, agent: Agent):
     """
     """
     if iterations < 2:
@@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ def dds(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  calibration_object: 'Evaluatable
         if calibration_object.output is None:
             #We are starting a new calibration and do not have an initial output state to evaluate, compute it
             #Need initial states  (iteration 0) to start DDS loop
-            print("Running {} to produce initial simulation".format(agent.cmd))
+            print(f"Running {agent.cmd} to produce initial simulation")
             agent.update_config(start_iteration, calibration_object.df[[str(start_iteration), 'param', 'model']], calibration_object.id)
             _execute(agent)
         with pushd(agent.job.workdir):
@@ -133,13 +134,13 @@ def dds(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  calibration_object: 'Evaluatable
         inclusion_probability = 1 - log(i)/log(iterations)
         dds_update(i, inclusion_probability, calibration_object, agent)
         #Run cmd Again...
-        print("Running {} for iteration {}".format(agent.cmd, i))
+        print(f"Running {agent.cmd} for iteration {i}")
         _execute(agent)
         with pushd(agent.job.workdir):
             _evaluate(i, calibration_object, info=True)
         calibration_object.check_point(i, agent.job)
 
-def dds_set(start_iteration: int, iterations: int, agent: 'Agent'):
+def dds_set(start_iteration: int, iterations: int, agent: Agent):
     """
         DDS search that applies to a set of calibration objects.
 
@@ -171,7 +172,7 @@ def dds_set(start_iteration: int, iterations: int, agent: 'Agent'):
             if calibration_set.output is None:
                 #We are starting a new calibration and do not have an initial output state to evaluate, compute it
                 #Need initial states  (iteration 0) to start DDS loop
-                print("Running {} to produce initial simulation".format(agent.cmd))
+                print(f"Running {agent.cmd} to produce initial simulation")
                 _execute(agent)
             with pushd(agent.job.workdir):
                 _evaluate(0, calibration_set, info=True)
@@ -184,7 +185,7 @@ def dds_set(start_iteration: int, iterations: int, agent: 'Agent'):
             for calibration_object in calibration_set.adjustables:
                 dds_update(i, inclusion_probability, calibration_object, agent)
             #Run cmd Again...
-            print("Running {} for iteration {}".format(agent.cmd, i))
+            print(f"Running {agent.cmd} for iteration {i}")
             _execute(agent)
             with pushd(agent.job.workdir):
                 _evaluate(i, calibration_set, info=True)
@@ -206,7 +207,7 @@ def compute(calibration_object, iteration, input) -> float:
         #cost = _objective_func(calibration_object.output, calibration_object.observed, calibration_object.objective, calibration_object.evaluation_range)
     return cost
 
-def cost_func( calibration_object: 'Adjustable', agents: 'Agent', pool, params):
+def cost_func( calibration_object: Adjustable, agents: Agent, pool, params):
     """_summary_
 
     Args:
@@ -244,7 +245,7 @@ def pso_search(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  agent):
     #TODO run first iteration?
     num_particles = agent.parameters.get('particles', 4)
     pool_size = agent.parameters.get("pool", 1)
-    print("Running PSO with {} particles using {} processes".format(num_particles, pool_size))
+    print(f"Running PSO with {num_particles} particles using {pool_size} processes")
     #TODO warn about potential loss of data when particles > pool
     _pool = pool.Pool(pool_size)
     agents = [agent] + [ agent.duplicate() for i in range(num_particles-1) ]
@@ -277,6 +278,5 @@ def pso_search(start_iteration: int, iterations: int,  agent):
         cost, pos = optimizer.optimize(cf, iters=iterations, n_processes=None)
         calibration_object.df.loc[:,'global_best'] = pos
         calibration_object.check_point(iterations, agent.job)
-        print("Best params with cost {}:".format(cost))
+        print(f"Best params with cost {cost}:")
         print(calibration_object.df[['param','global_best']].set_index('param'))
-    
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/strategy.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/strategy.py
index 7a6897c2..607a11a0 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/strategy.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/strategy.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 from typing import Optional, Mapping, Any
 try: #to get literal in python 3.7, it was added to typing in 3.8
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/utils.py b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/utils.py
index 209c5fa1..6e5ba045 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/utils.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/src/ngen/cal/utils.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
     from pydantic.typing import CallableGenerator
 
 @contextmanager
-def pushd(path: 'Path') -> None:
+def pushd(path: Path) -> None:
     """Change working directory to `path` for duration of the context
 
     Args:
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/tests/conftest.py b/python/ngen_cal/tests/conftest.py
index 26703035..64881ce9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/tests/conftest.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/tests/conftest.py
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@
 from ngen.cal.configuration import General
 from ngen.cal.ngen import Ngen
 from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
-from ngen.cal.calibration_cathment import CalibrationCatchment, EvaluatableCatchment, AdjustableCatchment
+from ngen.cal.calibration_cathment import CalibrationCatchment
 from ngen.cal.model import EvaluationOptions
 from ngen.cal.agent import Agent
-from hypy import Nexus, HydroLocation
+from hypy import Nexus
 
 from .utils import *
 
@@ -151,12 +151,12 @@ def catchment(nexus, fabric, workdir, mocker) -> Generator[CalibrationCatchment,
     output = nexus._hydro_location.get_data().rename(columns={'value':'sim_flow'})
     output.set_index('value_time', inplace=True)
     #Override the output property so it doesn't try to reload output each time
-    mocker.patch(__name__+'.EvaluatableCatchment.output',
+    mocker.patch('ngen.cal.calibration_cathment.EvaluatableCatchment.output',
                 new_callable=mocker.PropertyMock,
                 return_value = output
                 )
     #Disable output saving for testing purpose
-    mocker.patch(__name__+'.AdjustableCatchment.save_output',
+    mocker.patch('ngen.cal.calibration_cathment.AdjustableCatchment.save_output',
                 return_value=None)
 
     id = 'tst-1'
@@ -217,4 +217,4 @@ def explicit_catchments(nexus, fabric, workdir) -> Generator[ List[ CalibrationC
         id = f"tst-{i}"
         cat = CalibrationCatchment(workdir, id, nexus, start, end, fabric, 'Q_Out', eval_options, data)
         catchments.append(cat)
-    yield catchments
\ No newline at end of file
+    yield catchments
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_configuration.py b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_configuration.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 009df7cf..00000000
--- a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_configuration.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-import pytest
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Generator
-
-from .utils import config
-
-if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from ngen.cal.configuration import Configuration
-"""
-    Test suite for reading and manipulating ngen configration files
-"""
-
-# TODO determmine if any unit tests of General config are appropriate
-# pydantic is thoroughly tested upstream, but it may be a good idea to
-# write some simple tests around the defaults
-# may also want to implment some testing around the Model union/parsing
-
-# @pytest.mark.usefixtures("conf", "realization_config")
-# def test_config_file(conf: 'Configuration', realization_config: str) -> None:
-#     """
-#         Test configuration property `config_file`
-#     """
-#     assert conf.config_file == realization_config
-
-# @pytest.mark.usefixtures("conf")
-# def test_catchments(conf: 'Configuration') -> None:
-#     """
-#         Ensure that only the catchment marked with "calibration" is used in the configuration
-#     """
-#     assert len(conf.catchments) == 1
-#     assert conf.catchments[0].id == 'test-catchment'
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_model.py b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_model.py
index 54d9ba16..2f189fc0 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_model.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_model.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import pytest
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from ngen.cal.ngen import Ngen
 from ngen.cal.meta import JobMeta
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_objectives.py b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_objectives.py
index 7c5a6018..c9221d91 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_objectives.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_objectives.py
@@ -1,9 +1,6 @@
 import pytest
 from math import inf
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 import pandas as pd # type: ignore
-if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from pandas import DataFrame
 from ngen.cal.objectives import *
 
 #A data frame of "perfectly simulated" data
diff --git a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_search.py b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_search.py
index b8e26514..a00ea346 100644
--- a/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_search.py
+++ b/python/ngen_cal/tests/test_search.py
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 from ngen.cal.search import dds
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from ngen.cal.meta import CalibrationMeta
     from ngen.cal.calibration_cathment import CalibrationCatchment
     from ngen.cal.agent import Agent
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/all_formulations.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/all_formulations.py
index b26b9e46..9db1a578 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/all_formulations.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/all_formulations.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Union
 
 from ngen.config.cfe import CFE
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/bmi_formulation.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/bmi_formulation.py
index 7c5e1e8b..7ee163b8 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/bmi_formulation.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/bmi_formulation.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel, DirectoryPath, PyObject, Field, root_validator, validator
 from typing import Mapping, Optional, Union, Sequence, Any
 from typing_extensions import TypeAlias
@@ -40,7 +42,7 @@ class BMIParams(BaseModel, smart_union=True, allow_population_by_field_name = Tr
     name: str
     model_name: str = Field(alias='model_type_name')
     main_output_variable: str
-    config: Union[Path] = Field(alias='init_config') #Bmi config, can be a file or a str pattern
+    config: Path = Field(alias='init_config') #Bmi config, can be a file or a str pattern
     
     #reasonable defaultable fields
     allow_exceed_end_time: bool = False
@@ -62,7 +64,7 @@ class BMIParams(BaseModel, smart_union=True, allow_population_by_field_name = Tr
     _config_prefix: Optional[DirectoryPath] = Field(default=None, alias="config_prefix")
     _output_map: Optional[Mapping[str, str]] = Field(None, alias="output_map")
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional[Path]=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         """Resolve relative paths into absolute paths
 
         Args: 
@@ -183,7 +185,7 @@ class BMILib(BMIParams):
     #optional
     _library_prefix: Optional[DirectoryPath] = Field(None, alias="library_prefix")
     
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional[Path]=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         super().resolve_paths(relative_to)
         if relative_to is None:
             self.library = self.library.resolve()
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/cfe.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/cfe.py
index 29eea7cc..9951464a 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/cfe.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/cfe.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Optional, Literal
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/configurations.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/configurations.py
index b1b3256c..dc11db1d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/configurations.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/configurations.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from enum import Enum
 from datetime import datetime
 from pydantic import BaseModel, conint, Field
@@ -20,9 +22,9 @@ class Provider(str, Enum):
     file_pattern: Optional[Union[Path, str]]
     path: Path
     #reasonable? default
-    provider: Provider = Field(Provider.CSV)
+    provider: Forcing.Provider = Field(Provider.CSV)
     
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional[Path]=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         if isinstance(self.file_pattern, Path):
             if relative_to is None:
                 self.file_pattern = self.file_pattern.resolve()
@@ -60,7 +62,7 @@ class Routing(BaseModel):
     #optional/not used TODO make default None?
     path: Optional[str] = Field('', alias='t_route_connection_path') #TODO deprecate this field?
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional[Path]=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         if relative_to is None:
             self.config = self.config.resolve()
         else:
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/formulation.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/formulation.py
index b4a83440..994e48cb 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/formulation.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/formulation.py
@@ -1,7 +1,8 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel, validator
-from typing import Any, Dict, TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import Any, TYPE_CHECKING
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from typing import Optional
     from pathlib import Path
 
 class Formulation(BaseModel, smart_union=True):
@@ -15,12 +16,12 @@ class Formulation(BaseModel, smart_union=True):
     """
     #TODO make this an enum?
     name: str
-    params:  "KnownFormulations"
+    params:  KnownFormulations
 
     @validator("params", pre=True)
     def _validate_params(
-        cls, value: Union[Dict[str, Any], "KnownFormulations"]
-    ) -> Union[Dict[str, Any], "KnownFormulations"]:
+        cls, value: dict[str, Any] | KnownFormulations
+    ) -> dict[str, Any] | KnownFormulations:
         if isinstance(value, BaseModel):
             return value
 
@@ -35,7 +36,7 @@ def _validate_params(
                 raise ValueError("'name' and 'model_type_name' fields are required when deserializing _into_ a 'Formulation'.")
         return value
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: 'Optional[Path]'=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         self.params.resolve_paths(relative_to)
 
 #NOTE To avoid circular import and support recrusive modules
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/hydrofabric.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/hydrofabric.py
index 483b5ada..95fe2152 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/hydrofabric.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/hydrofabric.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import List, Literal, Optional
+from typing import Optional
 from pydantic import BaseModel, validator
 from geojson_pydantic import FeatureCollection, Point,  MultiPolygon
 import re
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/cfe.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/cfe.py
index fcbdc5bc..b8e17521 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/cfe.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/cfe.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, List, Literal, Optional, Union
 
 from ngen.init_config import serializer_deserializer as serde
@@ -73,7 +75,7 @@ def _coerce_lists(cls, value):
         return [x.strip() for x in value.split(",")]
 
     class Config(serde.IniSerializerDeserializer.Config):
-        def _serialize_list(l: List[float]) -> str:
+        def _serialize_list(l: list[float]) -> str:
             return ",".join(map(lambda x: str(x), l))
 
         field_serializers = {
@@ -157,14 +159,14 @@ class Config(serde.IniSerializerDeserializer.Config):
     def dict(
         self,
         *,
-        include: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
-        exclude: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
+        include: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
+        exclude: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
         by_alias: bool = False,
-        skip_defaults: Optional[bool] = None,
+        skip_defaults: bool | None = None,
         exclude_unset: bool = False,
         exclude_defaults: bool = False,
         exclude_none: bool = False,
-    ) -> "DictStrAny":
+    ) -> DictStrAny:
         serial = super().dict(
             include=include,
             exclude=exclude,
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/lstm.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/lstm.py
index 30db9775..2d08b927 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/lstm.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/lstm.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from ngen.init_config import serializer_deserializer as serde
-from pydantic import Extra
 from pathlib import Path
 
 from typing import Optional, Literal
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp.py
index bb1a8caa..e5f66490 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp.py
@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import warnings
 from datetime import datetime
 from enum import Enum
 from pathlib import Path, PosixPath, WindowsPath
-from typing import ClassVar, Dict, List, Literal, Union
+from typing import ClassVar, List, Literal
 
 from ngen.init_config import core
 from ngen.init_config import serializer_deserializer as serde
@@ -34,7 +36,7 @@
 USGS_NVEG = 27
 
 
-def _set_nveg_based_on_veg_class_name(parameters: "Parameters", structure: "Structure"):
+def _set_nveg_based_on_veg_class_name(parameters: Parameters, structure: Structure):
     # don't set if `nveg` is provided
     if structure.nveg is not None:
         return
@@ -49,13 +51,13 @@ def _set_nveg_based_on_veg_class_name(parameters: "Parameters", structure: "Stru
 
 
 class NoahOWP(serde.NamelistSerializerDeserializer):
-    timing: "Timing"
-    parameters: "Parameters"
-    location: "Location"
-    forcing: "Forcing"
-    model_options: "ModelOptions"
-    structure: "Structure"
-    initial_values: "InitialValues"
+    timing: Timing
+    parameters: Parameters
+    location: Location
+    forcing: Forcing
+    model_options: ModelOptions
+    structure: Structure
+    initial_values: InitialValues
 
     class Config(serde.NamelistSerializerDeserializer.Config):
         # NOTE: must explicitly specify Path subtype (i.e. `PosixPath`) here b.c.
@@ -68,7 +70,7 @@ class Config(serde.NamelistSerializerDeserializer.Config):
         }
 
     @root_validator
-    def _validate(cls, values: Dict[str, BaseModel]) -> Dict[str, BaseModel]:
+    def _validate(cls, values: dict[str, BaseModel]) -> dict[str, BaseModel]:
         parameters: Parameters = values["parameters"]  # type: ignore
         structure: Structure = values["structure"]  # type: ignore
         _set_nveg_based_on_veg_class_name(parameters, structure)
@@ -92,7 +94,7 @@ class Timing(core.Base):
     )(validate_str_len_lt(257))
 
     @validator("startdate", "enddate", pre=True)
-    def _validate_dates(cls, value: Union[datetime, str]):
+    def _validate_dates(cls, value: datetime | str):
         if isinstance(value, datetime):
             return value
         return datetime.strptime(value, cls._datetime_format)
@@ -272,7 +274,7 @@ class Config(core.Base.Config):
 
 
 def _warn_if_soil_or_veg_type_is_water_but_not_both(
-    parameters: "Parameters", structure: "Structure"
+    parameters: Parameters, structure: Structure
 ):
     if parameters.soil_class_name not in ("STAS", "STAS-RUC"):
         return
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp_options.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp_options.py
index 13f5245d..b84b2c5d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp_options.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/noahowp_options.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from enum import Enum
 
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/pet.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/pet.py
index eef1813c..2a8fc6ae 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/pet.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/pet.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from enum import Enum
-from typing import Literal, Union
+from typing import Literal
 
 from ngen.init_config import serializer_deserializer as serde
 from pydantic import validator
@@ -66,8 +68,8 @@ class PET(
 
     @validator("pet_method", pre=True)
     def _coerce_pet_method(
-        cls, value: Union[str, int, PetMethod]
-    ) -> Union[int, PetMethod]:
+        cls, value: str | int | PetMethod
+    ) -> int | PetMethod:
         if isinstance(value, (PetMethod, int)):
             return value
         return int(value)
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/utils.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/utils.py
index 45fcd834..9c517314 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/utils.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/utils.py
@@ -1,16 +1,13 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import re
 from enum import Enum
 
 from typing import (
     TYPE_CHECKING,
     Any,
-    Dict,
     Generic,
-    Optional,
-    Tuple,
-    Type,
     TypeVar,
-    Union,
 )
 
 from pydantic.generics import GenericModel
@@ -31,7 +28,7 @@
 _FLOAT_UNIT_PAIR_RE = re.compile(_FLOAT_UNIT_PAIR_RE_PATTERN)
 
 
-def _parse_float_unit_str(s: str) -> Tuple[float, str]:
+def _parse_float_unit_str(s: str) -> tuple[float, str]:
     match = _FLOAT_UNIT_PAIR_RE.search(s)
 
     if match is None:
@@ -53,7 +50,7 @@ class FloatUnitPair(GenericModel, Generic[L]):
     unit: L
 
     @classmethod
-    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
+    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: dict[str, Any]):
         field_schema.update(
             type="string",
             pattern=_FLOAT_UNIT_PAIR_RE_PATTERN,
@@ -61,7 +58,7 @@ def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
         )
 
     @classmethod
-    def validate(cls: Type[Self], value: Any) -> Self:
+    def validate(cls: type[Self], value: Any) -> Self:
         if isinstance(value, FloatUnitPair):
             return value
 
@@ -85,14 +82,14 @@ def __str__(self):
     def dict(
         self,
         *,
-        include: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
-        exclude: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
+        include: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
+        exclude: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
         by_alias: bool = False,
-        skip_defaults: Optional[bool] = None,
+        skip_defaults: bool | None = None,
         exclude_unset: bool = False,
         exclude_defaults: bool = False,
         exclude_none: bool = False,
-    ) -> "DictStrAny":
+    ) -> DictStrAny:
         return str(self)
 
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/validators.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/validators.py
index e711d475..e6bdaf42 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/validators.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/validators.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import sys
 
 if sys.version_info >= (3, 8):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/value_unit_pair.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/value_unit_pair.py
index e284c524..6475959e 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/value_unit_pair.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/init_config/value_unit_pair.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import re
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, List, Optional, Type, TypeVar, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, List, TypeVar
 
 from pydantic import validator
 from pydantic.generics import GenericModel
@@ -23,7 +25,7 @@ class ValueUnitPair(GenericModel, Generic[V, U]):
 
     @override
     @classmethod
-    def validate(cls: Type[Self], value: Any) -> Self:
+    def validate(cls: type[Self], value: Any) -> Self:
         if isinstance(value, ValueUnitPair):
             # return a shallow copy. this also validates / coerces mismatching generic types
             return cls(value=value.value, unit=value.unit)
@@ -53,7 +55,7 @@ def validate(cls: Type[Self], value: Any) -> Self:
 
     @override
     @classmethod
-    def parse_obj(cls: Type[Self], obj: Any) -> Self:
+    def parse_obj(cls: type[Self], obj: Any) -> Self:
         return cls.validate(obj)
 
     def _serialize(self) -> str:
@@ -63,14 +65,14 @@ def _serialize(self) -> str:
     def dict(
         self,
         *,
-        include: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
-        exclude: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
+        include: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
+        exclude: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
         by_alias: bool = False,
-        skip_defaults: Optional[bool] = None,
+        skip_defaults: bool | None = None,
         exclude_unset: bool = False,
         exclude_defaults: bool = False,
         exclude_none: bool = False,
-    ) -> "DictStrAny":
+    ) -> DictStrAny:
         return self._serialize()
 
 
@@ -81,7 +83,7 @@ def dict(
 
 class ListUnitPair(ValueUnitPair[List[T], U], Generic[T, U]):
     @validator("value", pre=True)
-    def _coerce_values(cls, value: Union[str, List[str]]) -> List[str]:
+    def _coerce_values(cls, value: str | list[str]) -> list[str]:
         if isinstance(value, list):
             return value
         if not isinstance(value, str):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lgar.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lgar.py
index 8dbb125e..cf183c4f 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lgar.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lgar.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import Field
 
 from .bmi_formulation import BMICxx
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lstm.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lstm.py
index c41ffe0a..14f53fe6 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lstm.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/lstm.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import PyObject, Field
 from typing import Literal, Union
 from .bmi_formulation import BMIPython
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/multi.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/multi.py
index ee5f5fba..fb7c88c9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/multi.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/multi.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Sequence, Mapping, Any, Optional, TYPE_CHECKING
-from typing_extensions import Literal
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pathlib import Path
 
@@ -15,7 +16,7 @@ class MultiBMI(BMIParams, smart_union=True):
     #required
     #Due to a recursive formulation definition, have to postpone this
     #type definition and use `update_forward_refs`
-    modules: Sequence["Formulation"]
+    modules: Sequence[Formulation]
     #defaults
     name: str = Field("bmi_multi", const=True)
 
@@ -32,7 +33,7 @@ class MultiBMI(BMIParams, smart_union=True):
     name_map: Mapping[str, str] = Field(None, const=True) #not relevant for multi-bmi
     model_params: Optional[Mapping[str, str]] = Field(None, const=True) #not relevant for multi-bmi
     
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional['Path']=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         for m in self.modules:
             m.resolve_paths(relative_to)
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/noahowp.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/noahowp.py
index d197cb58..c81e68b5 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/noahowp.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/noahowp.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Literal
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_abc_mixins.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_abc_mixins.py
index 665c395e..e5d7a36b 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_abc_mixins.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_abc_mixins.py
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
 
-from typing import Generic, Iterable, Optional
+from typing import Generic, Iterable
 from typing_extensions import Self
 
 from .typing import StrPath, T
@@ -19,7 +21,7 @@ class AbstractPathPairMixin(ABC, Generic[T]):
 
     @property
     @abstractmethod
-    def inner(self) -> Optional[T]:
+    def inner(self) -> T | None:
         """Return the inner object if it exists."""
 
     @abstractmethod
@@ -34,7 +36,7 @@ def with_path(self, *args: StrPath) -> Self:
         """
 
     @abstractmethod
-    def serialize(self) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    def serialize(self) -> bytes | None:
         """
         If the inner `T` exists, return a serialized version.
 
@@ -141,7 +143,7 @@ def serialize(self) -> Iterable[bytes]:
 
     @abstractmethod
     def deserialize(
-        self, data: Iterable[bytes], *, paths: Optional[Iterable[StrPath]] = None
+        self, data: Iterable[bytes], *, paths: Iterable[StrPath] | None = None
     ) -> bool:
         """
         Deserialize iterable of bytes into `T`'s and wrap each `T` as a `PathPair[T]`. Replace
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_mixins.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_mixins.py
index 950ab7df..da7ed9fe 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_mixins.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_mixins.py
@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from itertools import zip_longest
 from pathlib import Path
 
 from ._abc_mixins import AbstractPathPairMixin, AbstractPathPairCollectionMixin
 from ._utils import path_unlink_37
 
-from typing import Optional, Iterable
+from typing import Iterable
 from typing_extensions import Self
 from .typing import StrPath, T
 
@@ -21,7 +23,7 @@ def parent(self) -> Path:
         return Path(self).parent
 
     @property
-    def inner(self) -> Optional[T]:
+    def inner(self) -> T | None:
         return self._inner
 
     def with_path(self, *args: StrPath) -> Self:
@@ -34,7 +36,7 @@ def with_path(self, *args: StrPath) -> Self:
             deserializer=self._deserializer,
         )
 
-    def serialize(self) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    def serialize(self) -> bytes | None:
         if self._serializer is None or self._inner is None:
             return None
 
@@ -129,7 +131,7 @@ def serialize(self) -> Iterable[bytes]:
             yield self._serializer(item)
 
     def deserialize(
-        self, data: Iterable[bytes], *, paths: Optional[Iterable[StrPath]] = None
+        self, data: Iterable[bytes], *, paths: Iterable[StrPath] | None = None
     ) -> bool:
         """
         Deserialize collection of bytes into T's and wrap each T as a `PathPair[T]`. Replace
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_utils.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_utils.py
index de00f1ba..3edaa6e5 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_utils.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/_utils.py
@@ -1,5 +1,10 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import sys
-from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
 
 
 def path_unlink_37(p: Path, missing_ok: bool):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/common.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/common.py
index df5397ec..c505c39c 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/common.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/common.py
@@ -1,9 +1,13 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel
-from pathlib import Path
 
 from .protocol import Deserializer
 
-from typing import Type, TypeVar
+from typing import TypeVar, TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
 
 M = TypeVar("M", bound=BaseModel)
 
@@ -20,7 +24,7 @@ def pydantic_serializer(o: BaseModel) -> bytes:
     return o.json(by_alias=True).encode()
 
 
-def pydantic_deserializer(m: Type[M]) -> Deserializer[M]:
+def pydantic_deserializer(m: type[M]) -> Deserializer[M]:
     def deserialize(data: bytes) -> M:
         return m.parse_raw(data)
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/path_pair.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/path_pair.py
index 365e1c31..5cc6528d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/path_pair.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/path_pair.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import os
 from pathlib import Path, PosixPath, WindowsPath
 
@@ -6,7 +8,7 @@
 from ._abc_mixins import AbstractPathPairMixin, AbstractPathPairCollectionMixin
 from ._mixins import PathPairMixin, PathPairCollectionMixin
 
-from typing import Any, Dict, Generic, Optional, Union, List
+from typing import Any, Generic
 from typing_extensions import Self
 from .typing import StrPath, T
 
@@ -31,15 +33,15 @@ class PathPair(AbstractPathPairMixin[T], Path, Generic[T]):
     def __new__(
         cls,
         *args: StrPath,
-        inner: Optional[T] = None,
+        inner: T | None = None,
         reader: Reader = path_reader,
         writer: Writer = path_writer,
-        serializer: Optional[Serializer[T]] = None,
-        deserializer: Optional[Deserializer[T]] = None,
+        serializer: Serializer[T] | None = None,
+        deserializer: Deserializer[T] | None = None,
         **kwargs: Any,
-    ) -> Union["WindowsPathPair[T]", "PosixPathPair[T]"]:
+    ) -> WindowsPathPair[T] | PosixPathPair[T]:
         cls = WindowsPathPair[T] if os.name == "nt" else PosixPathPair[T]
-        self: Union[WindowsPathPair[T], PosixPathPair[T]] = Path.__new__(
+        self: WindowsPathPair[T] | PosixPathPair[T] = Path.__new__(
             cls, *args, **kwargs
         )
         self._inner = inner
@@ -57,9 +59,9 @@ def with_object(
         path: StrPath = "",
         reader: Reader = path_reader,
         writer: Writer = path_writer,
-        serializer: Optional[Serializer[T]] = None,
-        deserializer: Optional[Deserializer[T]] = None,
-    ) -> Union["PosixPathPair[T]", "WindowsPathPair[T]"]:
+        serializer: Serializer[T] | None = None,
+        deserializer: Deserializer[T] | None = None,
+    ) -> PosixPathPair[T] | WindowsPathPair[T]:
         return cls(
             Path(path),
             inner=obj,
@@ -74,7 +76,7 @@ def __get_validators__(cls):
         yield cls.validate
 
     @classmethod
-    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
+    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: dict[str, Any]):
         field_schema.clear()
         field_schema["format"] = "path"
         field_schema["type"] = "string"
@@ -110,13 +112,13 @@ def __new__(
         cls,
         *args: StrPath,
         pattern: str,
-        inner: Optional[List["PosixPathPair[T]"]] = None,
+        inner: list[PosixPathPair[T]] | None = None,
         reader: Reader = path_reader,
         writer: Writer = path_writer,
-        serializer: Optional[Serializer[T]] = None,
-        deserializer: Optional[Deserializer[T]] = None,
+        serializer: Serializer[T] | None = None,
+        deserializer: Deserializer[T] | None = None,
         **kwargs: Any,
-    ) -> Union["WindowsPathPairCollection[T]", "PosixPathPairCollection[T]"]:
+    ) -> WindowsPathPairCollection[T] | PosixPathPairCollection[T]:
         cls = (
             WindowsPathPairCollection[T]
             if os.name == "nt"
@@ -135,9 +137,9 @@ def __new__(
                     f"Filename not derived from template and pattern, {template_str.name!r} {pattern!r}: {item}"
                 )
 
-        self: Union[
-            WindowsPathPairCollection[T], PosixPathPairCollection[T]
-        ] = Path.__new__(
+        self: (
+            WindowsPathPairCollection[T] | PosixPathPairCollection[T]
+        ) = Path.__new__(
             cls,
             *args,
             inner=inner,
@@ -157,7 +159,7 @@ def __new__(
 
     @staticmethod
     def _get_id(
-        p: "PosixPathPair[T]",
+        p: PosixPathPair[T],
         prefix: str,
         suffix: str,
     ) -> str:
@@ -176,16 +178,16 @@ def home(cls) -> Path:
     @classmethod
     def with_objects(
         cls,
-        objs: List[T],
+        objs: list[T],
         *,
         path: Path,
         pattern: str,
-        ids: List[str],
-        reader: Optional[Reader] = path_reader,
-        writer: Optional[Writer] = path_writer,
-        serializer: Optional[Serializer[T]] = None,
-        deserializer: Optional[Deserializer[T]] = None,
-    ) -> Union["PosixPathPairCollection[T]", "WindowsPathPairCollection[T]"]:
+        ids: list[str],
+        reader: Reader | None = path_reader,
+        writer: Writer | None = path_writer,
+        serializer: Serializer[T] | None = None,
+        deserializer: Deserializer[T] | None = None,
+    ) -> PosixPathPairCollection[T] | WindowsPathPairCollection[T]:
         assert len(objs) == len(ids)
         prefix, _, suffix = path.name.partition(pattern)
         assert prefix != "" and suffix != ""
@@ -218,7 +220,7 @@ def __get_validators__(cls):
         yield cls.validate
 
     @classmethod
-    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
+    def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: dict[str, Any]):
         field_schema.clear()
         field_schema["format"] = "path"
         field_schema["type"] = "string"
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/protocol.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/protocol.py
index b1a46ce6..1e8d6ebe 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/protocol.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/protocol.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import sys
 
 if sys.version_info >= (3, 8):
@@ -5,9 +7,12 @@
 else:
     from typing_extensions import Protocol
 
-from pathlib import Path
 
 from .typing import T, S
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
 
 
 class Writer(Protocol):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/typing.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/typing.py
index 53d3f6e2..79bfa68c 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/typing.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/path_pair/typing.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import Union, TypeVar
 from typing_extensions import TypeAlias
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/pet.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/pet.py
index b9481764..44ae8e0a 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/pet.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/pet.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
-from pydantic import PyObject, Field
-from typing import Literal, Union
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from pydantic import Field
+from typing import Literal
 from .bmi_formulation import BMIC
 
 class PET(BMIC):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/realization.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/realization.py
index f6aa7460..590b2d4a 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/realization.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/realization.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
 from typing import Optional, Mapping, Sequence, Any
 from pathlib import Path
@@ -13,7 +15,7 @@ class Realization(BaseModel):
     forcing: Forcing
     calibration: Optional[ Mapping[ str, Sequence[ Any ]] ]
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional['Path']=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         for f in self.formulations:
             f.resolve_paths(relative_to)
         if self.forcing :
@@ -43,7 +45,7 @@ class Config:
             datetime: lambda v: v.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
         }
 
-    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Optional['Path']=None):
+    def resolve_paths(self, relative_to: Path | None=None):
         """resolve possible relative paths in configuration
         """
         self.global_config.resolve_paths(relative_to)
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/sloth.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/sloth.py
index cc9cad1b..478d4bbf 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/sloth.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/sloth.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Literal, Optional, Mapping
-from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
+from pydantic import Field
 
 from .bmi_formulation import BMICxx
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_freeze_thaw.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_freeze_thaw.py
index 3a51f459..94faeb22 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_freeze_thaw.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_freeze_thaw.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Optional
 
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_moisture_profile.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_moisture_profile.py
index c4ddf726..c08cfcff 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_moisture_profile.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/soil_moisture_profile.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Optional
 
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/topmod.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/topmod.py
index 614dfe57..ab0a316f 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/topmod.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/topmod.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from typing import Optional, Literal
 from pydantic import BaseModel, Field
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/utils.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/utils.py
index 91847bb4..f2867c6c 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/utils.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/utils.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from contextlib import contextmanager
 from os import getcwd, chdir
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
@@ -5,7 +7,7 @@
     from pathlib import Path
 
 @contextmanager
-def pushd(path: 'Path') -> None:
+def pushd(path: Path) -> None:
     """Change working directory to `path` for duration of the context
 
     Args:
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/validate.py b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/validate.py
index 84cb3833..5c7d8d65 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/validate.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/src/ngen/config/validate.py
@@ -1,10 +1,11 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import List
 
 
 class MissingPath:
-    def __init__(self, models: List[BaseModel], name: str, value: Path):
+    def __init__(self, models: list[BaseModel], name: str, value: Path):
         """Chain of pydantic model instances the last of which `name` and `value` properties belong"""
         self.models = models
         """Pydantic model instance on which `name` and `value` properties belong"""
@@ -26,16 +27,16 @@ def __str__(self) -> str:
         )
 
 
-def validate_paths(m: BaseModel) -> List[MissingPath]:
+def validate_paths(m: BaseModel) -> list[MissingPath]:
     """
     Recursively walk a pydantic model's fields and return a list of MissingPath
     instances for each encountered `pathlib.Path` instance that does not exist.
     The empty list means any `pathlib.Path` instances that were encountered
     exist.
     """
-    paths_that_dont_exist: List[MissingPath] = []
+    paths_that_dont_exist: list[MissingPath] = []
 
-    def rec(mod: BaseModel, visited: List[BaseModel]):
+    def rec(mod: BaseModel, visited: list[BaseModel]):
         for f_name in mod.__fields__.keys():
             f_value = getattr(mod, f_name)
             if isinstance(f_value, Path):
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_multi.py b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_multi.py
index 8938443e..1e4857e5 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_multi.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_multi.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import pytest
 from ngen.config.formulation import Formulation
 from ngen.config.multi import MultiBMI
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_noahowp.py b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_noahowp.py
index 0cf6db8f..8a6db140 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_noahowp.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_noahowp.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import pytest
 from ngen.config.formulation import Formulation
 from ngen.config.noahowp import NoahOWP
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_realization.py b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_realization.py
index 872d4532..a2cc0cbc 100644
--- a/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_realization.py
+++ b/python/ngen_conf/tests/test_realization.py
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 from ngen.config.realization import Realization, NgenRealization
 from ngen.config.formulation import Formulation
 
-import json
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("forcing",["csv", "netcdf"], indirect=True )
 def test_realization(forcing, time, cfe):
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/__init__.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/__init__.py
index 8dee4bf8..4aef7df1 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/__init__.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/__init__.py
@@ -1 +1,3 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from ._version import __version__
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/file_writer.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/file_writer.py
index 0544acc2..975d76f9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/file_writer.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/file_writer.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import dataclasses
 import enum
 import hashlib
@@ -20,7 +22,7 @@
 
 
 class FileWriter(Protocol):
-    def __call__(self, id: Union[str, Literal["global"]], data: BaseModel): ...
+    def __call__(self, id: str | Literal["global"], data: BaseModel): ...
 
 
 class _Reader(Protocol):
@@ -29,7 +31,7 @@ class _Reader(Protocol):
     EOF is empty bytes buffer of empty str.
     """
 
-    def read(self, size: Union[int, None] = ...) -> Union[bytes, str]: ...
+    def read(self, size: int | None = ...) -> bytes | str: ...
 
 
 def _sha256_hexdigest(r: _Reader) -> str:
@@ -103,7 +105,7 @@ def _get_file_extension(data: BaseModel) -> str:
 
 
 class DefaultFileWriter:
-    def __init__(self, root: Union[str, Path]):
+    def __init__(self, root: str | Path):
         root = Path(root)
         if not root.exists():
             root.mkdir(parents=True)
@@ -122,7 +124,7 @@ def _gen_alt_filename(p: Path) -> Path:
             i += 1
         return f_name
 
-    def __call__(self, id: Union[str, Literal["global"]], data: BaseModel):
+    def __call__(self, id: str | Literal["global"], data: BaseModel):
         class_name = data.__class__.__name__
         ext = _get_file_extension(data)
         output_file = self.__root / f"{class_name}_{id}.{ext}"
@@ -206,7 +208,7 @@ def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback) -> None:
             self._filehandle.close()
             self._filehandle = None
 
-    def __call__(self, id: Union[str, Literal["global"]], data: BaseModel) -> None:
+    def __call__(self, id: str | Literal["global"], data: BaseModel) -> None:
         class_name = data.__class__.__name__
         ext = _get_file_extension(data)
         output_file = f"{class_name}_{id}.{ext}"
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/generate.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/generate.py
index d1268af3..48d47ad9 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/generate.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/generate.py
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
-from typing import Any, Collection, Dict, Iterable, Protocol, Union, TYPE_CHECKING
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any, Collection, Iterable, Protocol, TYPE_CHECKING
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from .hook_providers import HookProvider
@@ -9,17 +11,17 @@
 
 class DivideIdHookObject:
     def __init__(self):
-        self.__divide_id: Union[str, None] = None
+        self.__divide_id: str | None = None
 
     def hydrofabric_hook(
-        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: Dict[str, Any]
+        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: dict[str, Any]
     ) -> None:
         self.__divide_id = divide_id
 
-    def visit(self, hook_provider: "HookProvider") -> None:
+    def visit(self, hook_provider: HookProvider) -> None:
         hook_provider.provide_hydrofabric_data(self)
 
-    def divide_id(self) -> Union[str, None]:
+    def divide_id(self) -> str | None:
         return self.__divide_id
 
 
@@ -31,7 +33,7 @@ def __call__(self) -> BuilderVisitable:
 
 
 def generate_configs(
-    hook_providers: Iterable["HookProvider"],
+    hook_providers: Iterable[HookProvider],
     hook_objects: Collection[BuilderVisitableFn],
     file_writer: FileWriter,
 ):
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hook_providers.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hook_providers.py
index 8f646069..54676bd3 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hook_providers.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hook_providers.py
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
-from typing import Any, Dict, Protocol, Union, runtime_checkable
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any, Protocol, runtime_checkable
 from typing_extensions import Self
 
 import geopandas as gpd
@@ -52,8 +54,8 @@ def __init__(self, hf: gpd.GeoDataFrame, hf_lnk_data: pd.DataFrame):
         self.hf_iter = self.__hf.iterrows()
         self.hf_lnk_iter = self.__hf_lnk.iterrows()
 
-        self.hf_row: Union[Dict[str, Any], None] = None
-        self.hf_lnk_row: Union[Dict[str, Any], None] = None
+        self.hf_row: dict[str, Any] | None = None
+        self.hf_lnk_row: dict[str, Any] | None = None
 
     def provide_hydrofabric_data(self, hook: HydrofabricHook):
         if self.hf_row is None:
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hooks.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hooks.py
index 036d337a..35432726 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hooks.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/hooks.py
@@ -50,7 +50,9 @@
 For a more hands on experience, see example implementations:
 https://github.com/NOAA-OWP/ngen-cal/tree/master/python/ngen_config_gen/examples
 """
-from typing import Any, Dict, Protocol, runtime_checkable, TYPE_CHECKING
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any, Protocol, runtime_checkable, TYPE_CHECKING
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -69,7 +71,7 @@ def build(self) -> BaseModel:
 
 @runtime_checkable
 class Visitable(Protocol):
-    def visit(self, hook_provider: "HookProvider") -> None:
+    def visit(self, hook_provider: HookProvider) -> None:
         """
         Classes that implement `visit` are assumed to also implement some or all hook methods (e.g. `hydrofabric_hook`).
         Classes that implement `visit` should call associated hook provider methods for each hook
@@ -117,7 +119,7 @@ class HydrofabricHook(Protocol):
     """
 
     def hydrofabric_hook(
-        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: Dict[str, Any]
+        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: dict[str, Any]
     ) -> None:
         """
         Expect to receive a hydrofabric version, data (see class docs), and the associated divide_id.
@@ -175,7 +177,7 @@ class HydrofabricLinkedDataHook(Protocol):
     """
 
     def hydrofabric_linked_data_hook(
-        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: Dict[str, Any]
+        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: dict[str, Any]
     ) -> None:
         """
         Expect to receive a hydrofabric linked data version, data (see class docs), and the associated divide_id.
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/cfe.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/cfe.py
index b25b4f5d..039972aa 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/cfe.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/cfe.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
-from typing import Any, Dict, List, Union
-from typing_extensions import TYPE_CHECKING
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from ..hook_providers import HookProvider
@@ -43,10 +45,10 @@ class Cfe:
     """
 
     def __init__(self):
-        self.data: Dict[str, Union[FloatUnitPair[str], List[float]]] = {}
+        self.data: dict[str, FloatUnitPair[str] | list[float]] = {}
 
     def hydrofabric_linked_data_hook(
-        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: Dict[str, Any]
+        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: dict[str, Any]
     ) -> None:
         """
         Implements `ngen.config_gen.hooks.hydrofabric_linked_data_hook`.
@@ -141,7 +143,7 @@ def build(self) -> BaseModel:
         """
         return CFEConfig(__root__=self.data)
 
-    def visit(self, hook_provider: "HookProvider") -> None:
+    def visit(self, hook_provider: HookProvider) -> None:
         """
         Call associated `hook_provider` methods for all hooks implemented by Self.
         """
diff --git a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/pet.py b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/pet.py
index 00f2c630..40bcad5c 100644
--- a/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/pet.py
+++ b/python/ngen_config_gen/src/ngen/config_gen/models/pet.py
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
-from typing import Any, Dict, TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any, TYPE_CHECKING
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -28,11 +30,11 @@ class Pet:
     """
 
     def __init__(self, method: PetMethod = PetMethod.energy_balance):
-        self.data: Dict[str, Union[bool, float, int, str]] = {}
+        self.data: dict[str, bool | float | int | str] = {}
         self.__pet_method = method
 
     def hydrofabric_linked_data_hook(
-        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: Dict[str, Any]
+        self, version: str, divide_id: str, data: dict[str, Any]
     ) -> None:
         """
         Implements `ngen.config_gen.hooks.hydrofabric_linked_data_hook`.
@@ -78,7 +80,7 @@ def build(self) -> BaseModel:
         """
         return PetConfig(**self.data)
 
-    def visit(self, hook_provider: "HookProvider") -> None:
+    def visit(self, hook_provider: HookProvider) -> None:
         """
         Call associated `hook_provider` methods for all hooks implemented by Self.
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/_deserializers.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/_deserializers.py
index c6d31e05..f9837a2f 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/_deserializers.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/_deserializers.py
@@ -1,13 +1,15 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import configparser
 
-from typing import Any, Dict, Type
+from typing import Any
 
 from .typing import M
 from .utils import try_import
 from ._constants import NO_SECTIONS
 
 
-def from_ini_str(ini_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
+def from_ini_str(ini_str: str, m: type[M]) -> M:
     cp = configparser.ConfigParser(interpolation=None)
     # cp.optionxform = str
     cp.read_string(ini_str)
@@ -17,7 +19,7 @@ def from_ini_str(ini_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
     return m.parse_obj(values)
 
 
-def from_ini_no_section_header_str(ini_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
+def from_ini_no_section_header_str(ini_str: str, m: type[M]) -> M:
     cp = configparser.ConfigParser(interpolation=None)
     cp.read_string(f"[{NO_SECTIONS}]\n" + ini_str)
 
@@ -28,7 +30,7 @@ def from_ini_no_section_header_str(ini_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
     return m.parse_obj(values)
 
 
-def from_namelist_str(nl_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
+def from_namelist_str(nl_str: str, m: type[M]) -> M:
     f90nml = try_import("f90nml", extras_require_name="namelist")
     parser = f90nml.Parser()
     data: f90nml.Namelist = parser.reads(nl_str)
@@ -36,19 +38,19 @@ def from_namelist_str(nl_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
     return m.parse_obj(data.todict())
 
 
-def from_yaml_str(yaml_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
+def from_yaml_str(yaml_str: str, m: type[M]) -> M:
     yaml = try_import("yaml", extras_require_name="yaml")
     try:
         from yaml import CLoader as Loader
     except ImportError:
         from yaml import Loader
 
-    data: Dict[str, Any] = yaml.load(yaml_str, Loader=Loader)
+    data: dict[str, Any] = yaml.load(yaml_str, Loader=Loader)
     return m.parse_obj(data)
 
 
-def from_toml_str(toml_str: str, m: Type[M]) -> M:
+def from_toml_str(toml_str: str, m: type[M]) -> M:
     tomli = try_import("tomli", extras_require_name="toml")
 
-    data: Dict[str, Any] = tomli.loads(toml_str)
+    data: dict[str, Any] = tomli.loads(toml_str)
     return m.parse_obj(data)
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/alias_generator.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/alias_generator.py
index 1b77a862..2318605b 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/alias_generator.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/alias_generator.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 def lower_case(s: str) -> str:
     return s.lower()
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/core.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/core.py
index a59a0c48..d1c39544 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/core.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/core.py
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from datetime import datetime
 from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Type, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 from pydantic.main import BaseModel, _missing
@@ -68,12 +70,12 @@ def _iter(
         self,
         to_dict: bool = False,
         by_alias: bool = False,
-        include: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
-        exclude: Optional[Union["AbstractSetIntStr", "MappingIntStrAny"]] = None,
+        include: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
+        exclude: AbstractSetIntStr | MappingIntStrAny | None = None,
         exclude_unset: bool = False,
         exclude_defaults: bool = False,
         exclude_none: bool = False,
-    ) -> "TupleGenerator":
+    ) -> TupleGenerator:
         # NOTE: majority of this code was copy pasted from `pydantic==1.10.5`. Due to `pydantic`'s
         # stability and implementation of this method, it was easier and more straightforward to go
         # this route rather than an implementation overload. For readability and maintainability,
@@ -201,21 +203,21 @@ def _iter(
             yield dict_key, v
 
 
-def _get_field_type_serializers(t: Type[Base]) -> TypeSerializers:
+def _get_field_type_serializers(t: type[Base]) -> TypeSerializers:
     return merge_class_attr(t, "Config.field_type_serializers", {})  # type: ignore
 
 
-def _has_field_type_serializers(t: Type[Base]) -> bool:
+def _has_field_type_serializers(t: type[Base]) -> bool:
     return bool(_get_field_serializers(t))
 
 
 @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
-def _get_field_serializers(t: Type[Base]) -> FieldSerializers:
+def _get_field_serializers(t: type[Base]) -> FieldSerializers:
     return merge_class_attr(t, "Config.field_serializers", {})  # type: ignore
 
 
 @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
-def _uses_composition(cls: Type[Base]) -> bool:
+def _uses_composition(cls: type[Base]) -> bool:
     for v in cls.__fields__.values():
         flat_type_hints = flatten_args(v.type_)
         for t in flat_type_hints:
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/deserializer.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/deserializer.py
index 466bc6ca..850c055d 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/deserializer.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/deserializer.py
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-from pathlib import Path
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 from .core import Base
 from .utils import merge_class_attr
@@ -10,7 +10,11 @@
     from_toml_str,
 )
 
-from typing_extensions import Self
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from typing_extensions import Self
+    from pathlib import Path
 
 
 class IniDeserializer(Base):
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/format_serializers.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/format_serializers.py
index 7ec436ee..54d113f8 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/format_serializers.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/format_serializers.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import configparser
 from collections import OrderedDict
 from io import StringIO
@@ -9,7 +11,7 @@
 from .utils import try_import
 
 
-def to_namelist_str(d: Dict[str, Any]) -> str:
+def to_namelist_str(d: dict[str, Any]) -> str:
     """Serialize a dictionary as an namelist formatted string."""
     f90nml = try_import("f90nml", extras_require_name="namelist")
 
@@ -34,7 +36,7 @@ def to_namelist_str(d: Dict[str, Any]) -> str:
 
 
 def to_ini_str(
-    d: Dict[str, NON_NONE_JSON_DICT],
+    d: dict[str, NON_NONE_JSON_DICT],
     *,
     space_around_delimiters: bool = True,
     preserve_key_case: bool = False,
@@ -98,7 +100,7 @@ def to_ini_no_section_header_str(
         return buff[buff.find("\n") + 1 :].rstrip()
 
 
-def to_yaml_str(d: Dict[str, Any]) -> str:
+def to_yaml_str(d: dict[str, Any]) -> str:
     """Serialize a dictionary as a yaml formatted string."""
     yaml = try_import("yaml", extras_require_name="yaml")
 
@@ -115,7 +117,7 @@ def increase_indent(self, flow=False, *args, **kwargs):
     return yaml.dump(d, Dumper=Dumper).rstrip()
 
 
-def to_toml_str(d: Dict[str, Any]) -> str:
+def to_toml_str(d: dict[str, Any]) -> str:
     """Serialize a dictionary as a toml formatted string."""
     tomli_w = try_import("tomli_w", extras_require_name="toml")
     # drop eol chars
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/root_validators.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/root_validators.py
index 750e5a31..494c0489 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/root_validators.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/root_validators.py
@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
-from typing import Any, Dict, Type
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any
 
 from .typing import M
 
 
-def case_insensitive_keys(cls: Type[M], values: Dict[str, Any]) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+def case_insensitive_keys(cls: type[M], values: dict[str, Any]) -> dict[str, Any]:
     """pydantic root validator that case insensitively remaps input `values` keys to model alias, if
     present, or field names.
     """
@@ -12,7 +14,7 @@ def case_insensitive_keys(cls: Type[M], values: Dict[str, Any]) -> Dict[str, Any
 
     # NOTE: only guarantees remapping defined fields to their case insensitive representation;
     # e.g. if `Config.extra = "allow"`, undefined fields will be included as is.
-    remapped: Dict[str, Any] = {}
+    remapped: dict[str, Any] = {}
     for k, v in values.items():
         try:
             key = keys_map[k.casefold()]
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer.py
index 45755575..9b231668 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer.py
@@ -1,7 +1,12 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import os
-import pathlib
 
 from . import core, format_serializers, utils
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    import pathlib
 
 
 class IniSerializer(core.Base):
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer_deserializer.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer_deserializer.py
index 0be734a2..ca2237a2 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer_deserializer.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/serializer_deserializer.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from . import serializer as ser
 from . import deserializer as de
 
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/typing.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/typing.py
index 3692a325..dddc7910 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/typing.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/typing.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import sys
 
 # see: https://docs.python.org/3.8/library/typing.html#typing.get_args
@@ -12,8 +14,6 @@
     Any,
     Callable,
     Dict,
-    List,
-    Tuple,
     Type,
     TypeVar,
     Union,
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
 TypeSerializers: TypeAlias = Dict[Type[Any], FnJsonSerializable]
 
 
-def flatten_args(t: Type[object]) -> Tuple[Type[object], ...]:
+def flatten_args(t: type[object]) -> tuple[type[object], ...]:
     """Flatten and deduplicate nested type hints. Order is preserved. In line with `get_args`'
     behavior, `typing.Union` are excluded.
 
@@ -40,8 +40,8 @@ def flatten_args(t: Type[object]) -> Tuple[Type[object], ...]:
     ```
     """
     # NOTE: python 3.7 >= dictionaries are ordered
-    flat: Dict[Type[object], None] = {}
-    horizon: List[Type[object]] = [t]
+    flat: dict[type[object], None] = {}
+    horizon: list[type[object]] = [t]
 
     while True:
         if not horizon:
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/utils.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/utils.py
index d2efb1dc..16da3e86 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/utils.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/utils.py
@@ -1,8 +1,13 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import importlib
-from typing import Any, Type, Union
-from types import ModuleType
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from copy import deepcopy
 
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from typing import Any
+    from types import ModuleType
+
 
 __SENTINEL = object()
 __MERGE_SENTINEL = object()
@@ -11,7 +16,7 @@
 
 def get_attr(
     __o: object, __name: str, __default: object = __SENTINEL
-) -> Union[Any, object]:
+) -> Any | object:
     value = __o
     partial_attrs = __name.split(".")
 
@@ -30,8 +35,8 @@ def has_attr(__o: object, __name: str) -> bool:
 
 
 def merge_class_attr(
-    __t: Type[object], __name: str, __default: object = __SENTINEL
-) -> Union[Any, object]:
+    __t: type[object], __name: str, __default: object = __SENTINEL
+) -> Any | object:
     """
     Walk a type's mro from back to front and merge or retrieve a _deep copy_ of a class attribute.
     Mergable attribute types (including subtypes) are, lists, dictionaries, and sets. Attributes are
@@ -51,7 +56,7 @@ def merge_class_attr(
     """
     mro = __t.mro()
 
-    final: Union[object, Any] = __MERGE_SENTINEL
+    final: object | Any = __MERGE_SENTINEL
 
     # unique id of source collection.
     # its healthy to think of this as a pointer to a source collection.
diff --git a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/validators.py b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/validators.py
index 957fdc16..c9dc3259 100644
--- a/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/validators.py
+++ b/python/ngen_init_config/src/ngen/init_config/validators.py
@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
-from typing import Callable, List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
+from typing import Callable
 
-def str_split(sep: str, *, strip: bool = False) -> Callable[[str], List[str]]:
-    def inner(items: str) -> List[str]:
+
+def str_split(sep: str, *, strip: bool = False) -> Callable[[str], list[str]]:
+    def inner(items: str) -> list[str]:
         split_items = items.split(sep)
         if strip:
             for idx, item in enumerate(split_items):