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    <p><span><b>A Note on Wellbeing in Social Science</b></span></p>
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Philosophers continue to debate what wellbeing is, or what it means to live a good
life. However, over the years, researchers have developed ways to
approximate wellbeing for practical purposes. Psychologists, economists,
philanthropists, policy makers, and other professionals need–—at
least–—a working definition of wellbeing in order to study, measure, and
promote it. Here, we describe some common views of wellbeing and
illustrate how they are used in social science.</p>
<strong>Preference satisfaction.</strong>
Preference theorists view wellbeing as fulfilling desires or
satisfying preferences, even if doing so does not always induce
pleasure. Nonetheless, it remains an open question whether all desires
are tied to wellbeing or just certain kinds, like higher-order or
informed desires.<p>
<strong>Economics.</strong> <em>Standard economics</em> often uses
preference satisfaction theories to study wellbeing. Revealed
preferences can be observed by studying the decisions people make. If
people desire higher incomes, for example, economists can promote
wellbeing by researching the impact of different economic policies on
gross domestic product (<em>GDP</em>).<p>
<strong>Social Surveys and Psychology.</strong> Traditionally,
psychological surveys evaluate wellbeing in terms of <em>life
satisfaction</em>. Life satisfaction is a measure of people’s stated
preferences—preferences or thoughts that individuals outwardly
express—regarding how their lives are going for them. Life satisfaction
surveys typically focus on tangible characteristics of people’s lives,
such as financial security, health, and personal achievements. They are
well suited to understanding the effects of concrete economic factors,
such as income and education, on an individual’s psychological
wellbeing. For example, to promote wellbeing, psychologists might
research the effects of access to education on one’s ability to achieve
the goals they set for themselves.</p>
<strong>Hedonism.</strong>
Under hedonist theories of wellbeing, an individual’s wellbeing is
determined by their mental states. In particular, the balance of
positive mental states (like pleasure or happiness) over negative mental
states (like pain or suffering).<p>
<strong>Economics.</strong> <em>Welfare economics</em> uses hedonism to
evaluate the wellbeing of populations. To estimate gross national
happiness (<em>GNH</em>)—-an indicator of national welfare—-it considers
the effects of several factors from psychological wellbeing to
ecological diversity and resilience on individuals’ mental states.
Welfare economists might prefer this framework because it is more
holistic - it evaluates both material and non-material aspects of
everyday life as they contribute to national welfare.<p>
<strong>Social Surveys and Psychology.</strong> Many psychologists also
use hedonist theories to understand and promote wellbeing. They may work
to identify the emotional correlates of happiness through surveys that
measure people’s stated emotions – unlike life satisfaction surveys,
these surveys do not reveal mental states. They reveal emotions that
people <em>remember</em>, not emotions they currently
<em>experience</em>. Researchers continue to look for ways to directly
observe emotions as they are experienced. For example, some studies use
cell phone apps to periodically prompt participants to record their
current emotions. Such research tactics may provide us with more precise
measures of individuals’ overall <em>happiness</em> by evaluating the
emotional responses to their everyday experiences in near real-time.</p>
<strong>Objective goods.</strong>
Under objective goods theories, wellbeing is determined by a certain
number of observable factors, independent of individuals’ preferences or
experiences. There are multiple theories about what those factors may
be. One of the most widely supported theories is <em>human
flourishing</em>. Under this view, wellbeing is more than just the
balance of pleasure over suffering, or the fulfillment of one’s
preferences – “the good life” should be full, virtuous, and meaningful,
encapsulating psychological, hedonistic, and social wellbeing all at
once.<p>
<strong>Economics.</strong> In economics, the <em>capabilities
approach</em> defines wellbeing as having access to a set of
capabilities that allow one to live the kind of life they value. It
emphasizes two core ideas: <em>functionings</em> and
<em>capabilities</em>. Functionings include basic and complex human
needs, ranging from good health to meaningful relationships.
Capabilities refer to the ability people have to choose and achieve the
functionings they value – they may include being able to move freely or
participate in the political process. This approach has significantly
influenced human development indicators, such as the Human Development
Index (<em>HDI</em>) – it allows developmental economists to measure and
compare wellbeing across different populations while also evaluating the
effectiveness of public policies.<p>
<strong>Psychology.</strong> Positive psychologists do not collapse
wellbeing into one dimension, rather, they argue for a
<em>psychologically rich life</em> – one that is happy, meaningful, and
engaging. Some psychologists use <em>PERMA theory</em> to evaluate
psychological richness, which considers five categories essential to
human flourishing: 1) experience of <em>positive emotions</em>, 2)
<em>engagement</em> with one’s interests, 3) maintenance of personal,
professional, and social <em>relationships</em>, 4) the search for
<em>meaning</em> or purpose, and 5) <em>accomplishments</em>, or the
pursuit of one’s goals. This framework is particularly useful in
evaluating wellbeing because it is universal–—it can be applied
cross-culturally—-and practical—-it can guide interventions aiming to
improve emotional wellbeing, social relationships, or activities that
provide a sense of meaning or accomplishment.<p>
While we don’t have a complete understanding of the nature of wellbeing,
we can use these theories as useful research tools. They can help us to
(a) understand how different factors contribute to wellbeing and (b)
evaluate the effectiveness of policies and other interventions aimed at
improving wellbeing.</p>
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