Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Seventh Edition.

THE OFFICIAL GUIDE To APA STYLE

INTRODUCTION

APA Style: The Authoritative Guide for Effective Scholarly Communication

Introduction

APA Style: set of guidelines for clear, concise, and organized academic communication.
Used in various fields like psychology, nursing, social work, education, business, engineering, etc.
Benefits: focus on ideas, consistency, disclosure of essential information, ethics, and accessibility.

APA Style for Students

Applicable to both student papers and professional manuscripts.
Specific guidance and support for students, including:
- Student title page
- Citing classroom or intranet sources
- Descriptions of common types of student papers (e.g., annotated bibliographies)
- Journal article reporting standards (JARS)

Utility and Accessibility

Seventh edition designed with practical needs in mind:
- Organized using numbered sections for quick reference.
- Depth of content makes it both a reference work and textbook on scholarly writing.
- Accessible to everyone, including users with disabilities:
  - Streamlined format for in-text citations
  - Guidance on adequate contrast in figures
  - Support for various fonts and default settings in word processors
Aims to support diverse ways of communication and respectful towards people.

Benefits of APA Style

Clear, concise, and organized writing: focus on ideas rather than formatting distractions.
Consistency and uniformity: quick scanning and easy understanding.
Fully disclose essential information: accurate evaluation and potential replication.
Ethical compliance: critical details of research protocol.
Engaging presentation of data through tables and figures.
Mastering scholarly writing: develops critical thinking skills and clear communication.

Notes to Users

Note to Users

References to Non-APA Products: for reference only, not an endorsement or affiliation.
Trademarks: owned by respective owners.

Scholarly writing and Publishing Principles

Importance of Scholarly Communication

Research results shared through peer-reviewed journals: repositories of knowledge.
Students as members of scholarly community: prepare for future contributions.
Importance of student writing: critical thinking, self-reflection, inquiry.

Types of Articles and Papers

Professional authors: original research articles, reviews, theoretical papers, case studies, methodology articles, reports.
Student authors: lab reports, term papers, theses, dissertations.

Ethical, Legal, and Professional Standards in Publishing

All authors must adhere to ethical standards: IRB/IACUC approval, confidentiality, originality, proper citation.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Approve research involving human participants or their data.
Ensure voluntary participation and informed consent.
Protect human rights and welfare.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs)

Oversee animal research to ensure ethical treatment of animals.
Adhere to regulations for animal care and use.

Protection of Confidentiality

Preserve anonymity and confidentiality.
Ensure data security and privacy.

Original Contributions

Write original work: plagiarism, fabrication, falsification are unethical.

Proper Citation

Properly acknowledge others' work: cite sources accurately.
Avoid self-plagiarism (duplicate publication).

Types of Articles and Papers

Types of Articles and Papers

Scientific journals: publish various types of articles reporting primary research, theoretical advancements, or methodological developments.
Primary research articles: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods empirical studies that have not been previously published.
Theoretical articles: describe advancements in theories without presenting original data.
Methodological articles: discuss advancements in research methods.
Literature reviews and meta-analyses**: summarize findings from primary research.
Student papers: course assignments, dissertations, theses not intended for publication in a journal.

Quantitative Articles

Description: report original, empirical quantitative research.
Characteristics: numerically represented outcomes, analyzed using statistics and data analyses.
Structure: Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion.
Sections: Purpose, Background Literature, Hypotheses, Description of Study Procedures, Data Analysis, Findings Interpretation, Limitations & Implications.
Additional sections for multiple studies: headings like "Experiment 1," "Results and Discussion," and a comprehensive general discussion at the end.

Quantitative Research

Approach: commonly used in behavioral and social sciences to represent outcomes numerically.
Features: uses experimental designs, data analyses, modeling techniques, statistical methods.
Study components: materials, procedures, research design, ethical considerations, participant flow description.

Reporting Standards

Authors: describe elements in first person.
Follow: quantitative journal article reporting standards (Sections 5.1-12).

Qualitative Articles

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Articles: report original, empirical research using qualitative approaches.
Characteristics: analyze data consisting of natural language, observations, and expressions; iterative process of analysis; reflexivity about researchers' perspectives; focus on experiences with shifting meaning.

Qualitative Research Methods

Case Studies: reporting analyses or observations of an individual, group, community, or organization; illustrate a problem, provide solutions, or shed light on research needs.
Other Qualitative Research: studying commonalities and differences across multiple participants, groups, communities, or organizations; focus on social processes, actions, or discourses.

Qualitative Article Structure

Illustrative material vs confidential participant data: authors should balance the two responsibly (see Sections 1.1-1.19).
Organization: thematic or chronological presentation; reflexive, first-person style detailing researchers' methods and findings.

Qualitative Research Reporting Standards

Authors should adhere to reporting standards (see Sections .17 for more information).

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Data Collection: generates knowledge about human experience and action through non-numerical data.
Analysis Methods: iterative process of self-correcting analysis; reflexivity about researchers' perspectives.
Findings: situated within place and time, evolving meaning rather than seeking stable laws.

Mixed Methods Articles

Mixed Methods Articles

Mixed methods research: combines qualitative and quantitative approaches
Philosophical assumptions/theoretical models: described for study design (Creswell, 2015)
Methodologies, designs, procedures: explained in relation to goals
Data collection & analysis: for qualitative and quantitative data
Findings integration: new insights generated

Basic assumption: combined findings lead to insights not gained alone (Creswell, 2015; Greene, 2017; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2011)

Structure of Mixed Methods Articles varies based on study nature and balance between methodologies

Replication Articles

Replication studies: verifying or reproducing previous findings
Internal vs. external replications: this text focuses on external replications
External replication: obtaining new sample to duplicate original study features as much as possible
- Direct/exact replication: identical procedures or closely duplicated (e.g., location, investigators)
- Approximate/modified replication: additional procedures and conditions
- Conceptual replication: different techniques and manipulations for theoretical information (no features retained from initial study)
Report sufficient information to determine type of replication

Replication Types

Direct/exact: repeat study with identical or closely duplicated procedures
Approximate/modified: additional procedures and conditions to determine influence on outcome
Conceptual: different techniques and manipulations for theoretical insights, no features retained from initial study.

Section: Quantitative and Qualitative Meta-Analyses

Meta-Analyses

Definition: collection of techniques to draw conclusions based on multiple related studies.
Data: analyzed at study level; no individual data used.
Indicators: studies included marked with specific indicators (e.g., asterisk in APA Style).

Quantitative Meta-Analysis

Technique: effect size estimates from individual studies as inputs.
Goals: determine factors influencing outcome, compare studies, etc.
Structure: introduction, Method, Results, Discussion; follow reporting standards (Section .12).

Qualitative Meta-Analysis

Various Approaches: qualitative metasynthesis, metaethnography, metamethod, critical interpretive synthesis.
Goals: identify trends, gaps, propose future directions; use strategies from primary qualitative analyses.
Structure: introduction, description of authors' perspectives, Results and Discussion sections; follow reporting standards (Section .17).
Differences with Literature Reviews: literature reviews summarize findings without systematic analysis (see Section 1.).

Literature Review Articles

Definition: narrative summaries and evaluations of a literature base.
Content: define problem, summarize research, identify trends, gaps, inconsistencies, suggest next steps.
Components: arrangement can vary based on research similarities or concepts; no systematic meta-analysis (Section 1.).

Theoretical Articles

Theoretical Articles

Present and advance theory
- Draw from existing literature
- Trace theory development
- Expand and refine constructs
- Present new theories
- Analyze existing theories
Empirical information used selectively
- Advance theoretical issue
May critique or compare theories
Sections can vary in order

Methodological Articles

Introduce new research methods
- Modifications of existing methods
- Discussions of data analysis
Use empirical data
- Illustrate approach to research
- Not the primary focus
May use simulated data
- Demonstrate method functionality under various conditions
Clear and detailed information for assessment
- Applicability
- Feasibility
Highly technical material in appendices or supplements
Crucial details in text when necessary
Comparison with existing methods

Key Features of Theoretical Articles

Draw on research literature
Advance theories
Selective use of empirical data
Critique and compare theories

Key Features of Methodological Articles

Introduce new or modified methods
Empirical data used for illustration
Simulated data usage
Clear and detailed information for assessment
Comparison with existing methods

Ethical Legal and Professional Standards in Publishing

Ethical, Legal, and Professional Standards in Publishing

Ethical Principles in Research

Follow APA Ethics Code (APA, 2017a) and broader professional standards.
Ensure accuracy of scientific findings.
Protect rights and welfare of research participants and subjects.
Protect intellectual property rights.

Planning for Ethical Compliance

Consider ethical concerns during research planning stages.
Obtain institutional approval (IRB) before starting research.
Report institutional approvals in manuscripts.
Consult APA ethical compliance form and checklist.
Disclose conflicts of interest.

Institutional Approval

Required for certain types of research.
Contact appropriate IRB or ethical review group.
Follow ethical and research requirements.

Participant Protection

Informed consent.
Deception in research.
Data sharing.

Confidentiality and Privacy

Protect participants' confidentiality and privacy.
Obtain informed consent for data use.
Ensure anonymity and confidentiality.

Reporting Standards

Comply with APA journal reporting standards.
Disclose ethical approvals and conflicts of interest.
Answer potential questions from editors or reviewers.

Evolving Ethical Standards

APA Ethics Code is revised over time to reflect changes in understanding and conception of ethical principles.
Check the APA website for new or revised versions of the APA Ethics Code.

Ethical and Accurate Reporting of Research Results

Ethical Reporting of Research Results

Reporting Standards: APA and other scientific organizations issue reporting standards to ensure ethical and accurate reporting of research results.
Prohibited Practices: fabricating or falsifying data, modifying results, omitting troublesome observations, and representing post hoc hypotheses as preplanned are prohibited (APA Ethics Code).
Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research: Preplanned primary, secondary, and exploratory hypotheses should be clearly stated.
Qualitative Research: Transparently describe expectations at study's outset in research reporting.
Errors Corrections and Retractions
- Corrections: Inform editor and publisher when errors are substantive enough to affect understanding or interpretation of results. Publish a formal correction notice.
- Retractions: Whole article is retracted if issues are significant (plagiarism, fabrication/falsification, calculation errors, etc.). Intended to remove compromised information from scientific literature.
Citing Retracted Articles: Only cite if essential and reflect the retraction status in the reference list entry.

Reporting Standards for Research

Describing all measured variables
Tracking participant flow through study, including an accompanying prototype figure (Figure 7.5) to ensure no selective exclusion.
Reporting special classes of studies like clinical trials

Changes in Reporting Standards

Hypotheses should now be stated as preplanned primary, secondary, and exploratory.
Qualitative researchers should transparently describe their expectations at study's outset.

Errors Corrections and Retractions Procedures

Inform editor and publisher when errors are significant
Publish formal correction notice (erratum)
Retraction of entire article if issues are serious
APA Ethics Code and Manual guidelines on corrections and retractions.

Data Retention and Sharing

Data Retention and Sharing

Data Retention

Authors expected to retain data in accordance with: institutional requirements, funder requirements, participant agreements, APA Ethics Code (Standard .14).
Consider how data will be retained and share procedures in study protocol.
Describe intended data handling during informed consent process.
In qualitative studies, data sharing may not be appropriate due to confidentiality, consent, and other limitations (Section 1.15).

Data Sharing

APA Ethics Code prohibits authors from withholding data for verification (Standard .14).
Permit requestor to cover costs associated with providing data.
Increasingly, funders require data sharing or data management plans.
APA invites authors to share data on Open Science Framework (OSF).
Incentives offered for open sharing of research materials and data: Open Science Badges.
Types of data to be shared: instructions, stimuli, blank questionnaires, treatment manuals, software, interview protocols, details of procedures, code for mathematical models, source data, participants' responses, analysis data.

Data Sharing During Review Process

Expected to share data, analyses, and materials during review process if questions arise about accuracy or integrity.
Raw data should be shared with journal editor on request.
If approved by the editor, raw data can be shared with reviewers to assess rigor.
Costs of sharing data requested during review process borne by authors.
Students must provide raw data for faculty reviewing their dissertation, thesis, or research project.
Journal editor may deny publication if authors refuse to share materials or data during the review process.
In case of student work, refusal to share requested materials or data may result in a failing grade or defense (Section 1.15 for additional considerations when sharing access to qualitative data).

Sharing After Publication. Authors must make their data available after publication, subject to conditions and exceptions, within the period of retent

Data Sharing after Publication

Sharing Data: authors must make data available for verification and alternative analyses within retention period set by institution, journal, funder, or other supporting organization (APA Ethics Code Standards .14a and .1).
Competent Professionals: those with research background, sufficient training, and credentials to understand the study.
Data Request: researchers must come to a written agreement on conditions for sharing data and results.

Conditions for Data Sharing

Costs: additional costs beyond standard data maintenance should be borne by requester.
Retraction or Expression of Concern: failure to share data may result in retraction or expression of concern (APA Ethics Code Standard .14a).
Open Data Sharing: authors may choose or be required to share data openly, with proper consideration of rights and regulations.
Personally Identifiable Information: remove all identifiable information before sharing data (GDPR, HIPAA).
Proprietary Arrangements: restrictions on sharing due to confidentiality agreements or commercial interests.

Policies for Data Sharing

Journal Policies: editors may encourage or require open sharing and set policies on proprietary arrangements.
Citation: include a permanent link and reference to shared data in article.

Federally Funded Research

Data-Sharing Policies: federal grants and research may be subject to specific data-sharing requirements (National Institutes of Health).

Exceptions to Data Sharing

Confidentiality: protect participants' privacy and confidential information.
Proprietary Arrangements: respect proprietary arrangements that restrict data sharing (e.g., business partnerships, coding schemes).
Editorial Policies: editors are responsible for determining the acceptability of publications based on proprietary arrangements.

Additional Data-Sharing Considerations for Qualitative Research

Data Sharing Considerations for Qualitative Research

Distinct Issues from Section 1.14

Consensus on data sharing yet to be reached.
Concerns about presenting raw data, confidentiality, consent, and researchers' perspectives.

Raw Data in Research Reports

Exemplify analysis process and demonstrate findings grounding.
Provide basis for evaluation of conclusions by readers, editors, peers.

Confidentiality Limitations

Protect participants' identities and meaningful information.
High burden on researchers to remove revealing details may compromise data.
Withhold data instead of stripping it of meaning.
Difficulties maintaining confidentiality with extensive data sets.

Consent Limitations

Participants might not consent to data sharing beyond initial research team.
Vulnerable populations and unique communities may have specific concerns.
Communities may own or co-own the data themselves, refusing to share.

Researchers' Perspective Limitations

Researchers' history and epistemological perspectives are legitimate influences on inquiry.
Interpretive attitudes, personal experiences, research teams, and analytic lenses enrich research.
Editors or external researchers may not share the same perspective.
Approach to investigation may signify epistemological commitments of researchers and participants.

Recommendations for Data Sharing in Qualitative Research

Elaborate on investigative attitudes, personal experiences, research teams, or analytic lenses when sharing data.
Clearly articulate purpose and rationale for data review prior to sharing.
Be aware of distinct epistemological positions and analytic processes within qualitative research.
Ensure that all stakeholders (researchers, participants, and communities) are involved in the decision-making process regarding data sharing.

Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data

Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication in Research

Accurate representation: research efforts must be independent.
Duplicate publication: publishing same data or ideas in multiple works.
Piecemeal publication: splitting findings into multiple works unnecessarily.
Ethics Code (APA): prohibits duplicate publication of data.
Misrepresentation: misleading about originality of research.
Consequences: distorts knowledge base, wastes resources, copyright violations.

Duplicate Publication

Prohibited by APA Ethics Code (Standard .1).
Misleads readers about available information.
Wastes resources: pages, editor and reviewer time.
Can lead to incorrect conclusions.
Copyright issues: one copyright per publication.

Submitting Manuscripts for Publication

Disclose online posting before submission.
Previously published material exceptions: abstracted form, limited circulation, reanalysis, follow-up studies.

Exceptions to Duplicate Publication Policy

Abstracted form: conference proceedings, narrow circulation.
Limited availability: university reports, government documents, dissertations.
Reanalysis: new theories or methodologies, clearly labeled, provides new insights.
Follow-up studies: initial findings then assessment at later date.

Previously Published Material and Peer Review

Consult a journal editor to determine if re-publication is necessary.

Acknowledging and Citing Previous Work. Authors sometimes want to publish what is essentially the same material in more than one venue to reach differ

Duplicate Publication

Acknowledging Previously Published Work: essential to cite and acknowledge in new publications.
- Inform editors, reviewers, readers, copyright holders.
- Reporting new analyses or following up on previous work.
Conditions for Duplicate Publication
1. Small amount of duplicated material.
2. Clear acknowledgment and citation in the article and author note.
3. Copyright attribution for reprinted tables and figures.
4. Permission from copyright holder.
Multiple Authors: all original authors must provide permission and receive credit.

Piecemeal Publication

Overview: present work parsimoniously, avoid fragmented publication.
Risks of Piecemeal Publication
- Misleading communication.
- Distortion of scientific literature in reviews or meta-analyses.
Acceptable Reasons for Piecemeal Publication
- Clear reason for doing so.
- Space constraints.
Guidance for Authors
- Inform editor of previous publications and extent of overlap.
- Detail how the submission builds on previous reports.
Editorial Judgment
- Determining if publication is fragmented or not.

Multiple Publications From Large-Scale, Longitudinal Projects and Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research.

Multiple Publications from Large-Scale, Longitudinal Projects and Qualitative Research

Situations Calling for Multiple Publications

Multidisciplinary projects: addressing diverse topics, answering different questions.
Distinct theoretical questions: using same instruments, making unique contributions.
Longitudinal or large-scale studies: data at different time points make independent scientific contributions.
Qualitative and mixed methods research: voluminous findings not appropriate for a single article.

Planning for Multiple Publications

Decide at the outset how data will be presented (one report vs. multiple reports).
New questions or analyses should not be the sole reason for additional studies.
Unique introduction, Results, Discussion, and Method sections for each report.

Benefits of Multiple Publications

Useful knowledge: made available to others as soon as possible.
Flexibility: addressing diverse topics or theoretical questions.
Comprehensive understanding: deeper exploration of data in separate publications.

Considerations for Multiple Publications

Ensure each publication makes a unique contribution and does not overlap significantly with previous work.
Maintain transparency by clearly stating the relationship between the studies in each publication's introduction and acknowledgments sections.
Be mindful of potential implications for citation counts, impact factors, and overall research output metrics.

With mixed methods studies, authors might publish multiple articles, such as a qualitative study, a quantitative study, and a mixed methods overview s

Mixed Methods Studies

Authors may publish multiple articles based on new insights from different methods.
Cite prior reports to help readers understand the work.
Distinguish between complete and incomplete data sets.
Provide sufficient information for evaluation.
Clarify sample overlap.
Inform journal editor before submission.
Manuscript may be rejected for piecemeal publication.

Republication of Articles as Book Chapters

Authors must reveal previous publication and cite sources.
Obtain permission to reprint or adapt work with proper attribution.
Applicable to sections 12.14 and 12.1 of APA style.

Plagiarism vs Self-plagiarism

Plagiarism:

Presenting others' words, ideas, or images as one's own.
Violates ethical standards (APA Ethics Code Standard .11).
Real-world consequences: rejection, professional sanctions, academic penalties.

Self-plagiarism:

Presenting previously published work as original.
Misleads readers and inflates publication count.
Unethical and has real-world consequences.

Citing Previous Work in Mixed Methods Studies

Cite prior reports to help readers understand the research accurately.
Provide sufficient information for evaluation.
Clarify sample overlap.
Inform journal editor of similar manuscripts before submission.

Consequences of Plagiarism and Self-plagiarism

Publication rejection.
Professional sanctions, including censure, exclusion from funding opportunities.
Academic penalties, such as failing grades or expulsion for students.

Republication of Previously Published Work

Reveal previous publication and cite sources.
Obtain permission to reprint or adapt work with proper attribution.
Complies with sections 12.14 and 12.1 of APA style.

Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research Participants and Subjects

Protecting Rights and Welfare of Research Participants and Subjects

APA Ethics Code: outlines ethical standards for psychologists conducting research with human participants and nonhuman animals.
Human Participants
- Informed consent, assent, or permission: obtain using understandable language.
- Minimize harm.
- Avoid exploitative relationships and undue influence.
- No excessive inducements or unjustified deception.
- Protect participant data confidentiality.
Nonhuman Animal Subjects
- Ensure humane treatment and healthful conditions.
- Protocol review by animal care committees (IACUC).
APA Journal Publication Standards
- Researchers must certify adherence to ethical standards for publication.
Confidentiality
- Protect confidential information about clients, patients, etc.
- Disguise identifying material in research reports.

Strategies to Disguise Identifying Material

Alter specific characteristics.
Limit disclosure of information.
Obscure case detail by adding extraneous material.
Use composite descriptions.

Data Protection

Extra steps needed for confidentiality with multiple data types or protected health information.
HIPAA website provides guidance on deidentifying data: https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa-for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html
Data Privacy Lab offers methods for deidentifying various kinds of data: https://dataprivacylab.org/projects/index.html.

Conflict of Interest

Conflict of Interest

Defined broadly: personal, scientific, professional, legal, financial or other interests or relationships that could negatively impact professional conduct or harm research participants (APA Ethics Code).

Author's Conflict of Interest

Objectivity and transparency required.
Disclose potential conflicts to maintain integrity.
Economic interests, salaries, grants, consulting fees, personal stock holdings should be disclosed.
Participation in boards, relationships with entities related to the research project.
Circumstances that might influence against a product or person also need to be disclosed.
Disclosure is not about significance but individual circumstances.

Editor and Reviewer's Conflict of Interest

Broader definition: economic interests, personal connections (family ties, marital relationships, close friendships, romantic connections, professional relationships).
Editors and reviewers should recognize and disclose conflicts to the assigning person.
Decline request or ask for another decision-maker if necessary.
Opinion-based conflicts are not always disqualifying but should be disclosed.
If identity of an author is known, potential conflicts must be reported.

Conflict of Interest in Publishing

Impairment of objectivity when performing and evaluating research.
Potential harm or exploitation of research participants.

Editor's Role

Set policy for journal regarding collaboration-based conflicts.
Seek opinions from reviewers with diverse positions on controversial manuscripts.
Let the assigning person know if the editor's point of view is fundamentally opposed to a manuscript.

Protecting Intellectual Property Rights

Authorship and Intellectual Property Rights

Protect intellectual property and give proper publication credit
Substantial contribution required for authorship credit

Substantial Contributions

Problem or hypothesis formulation
Study design organization
Data analysis interpretation
Others: designing/building study apparatus, collecting data, etc.
Collaborators decide on tasks and authorship credit early in a project
Reassess as contributions change

Verifying Authorship

Upon manuscript acceptance, each author must verify authorship
Agree to serve as an author
Approve order of authorship presented in byline
Accept responsibilities of authorship

Order of Authors

Principal contributor listed first
Decreasing contribution order for subsequent authors
Exceptions can vary by field and journal
Equal contributions noted in author note

Professional–Student Collaborations

Doctoral students: principal author on papers based on their dissertation
Master's-level students: first author if primary contribution
Students collaborating with faculty members for skills acquisition: authorship determined by contributions

Student Assignments

Student Group Projects

Students contribute equally: can put names in any order on byline.
Confidentiality during editorial review:
- Manuscript under review is confidential.
- No quoting or circulating copies without authors' permission.
- Contact colleague with editor's approval.

Intellectual Property Rights During Manuscript Review

Editorial review is confidential and privileged.
Reviewers may not use unpublished manuscript material without authors' consent.
Publishers have varying policies on editorial review.

Authors' Copyright on Unpublished Manuscripts

Unpublished works are automatically copyrighted.
Authors own the copyright until formal transfer to publisher.
Exclusive rights of published work apply to unpublished work.

Ensuring Copyright Protection

Publishers include copyright notice on published works.
Copyright notice recommended for unpublished works.
Registration with U.S. Copyright Office optional but often necessary for legal action.

Ethical Compliance Checklist

Ethical Compliance Checklist

1. Permissions and Attributions:

Obtained written permission for use of unpublished instruments, procedures, or data (proprietary).
Properly cited all published works, unpublished works, and ideas and creations of others presented in the manuscript.
Secured needed permissions and written copyright attributions for items required.

2. Institutional Review:

Reported institutional review of the study or studies in Methods section of the manuscript.
Prepared to answer editorial questions about informed consent, assent, debriefing procedures used.

3. Animal Subjects:

Prepared to answer editorial questions about humane care and treatment of nonhuman animal subjects.

4. Authorship Responsibility:

All authors have reviewed the manuscript and agreed on its content.

5. Confidentiality:

Adequately protected confidentiality of research participants, clients, patients, organizations, or sources of information presented in the manuscript.
Released or shared participant data only according to the agreement specified in the informed consent for the study.

6. Clinical Trials Registration:

If applicable, reported registration of clinical trials in the author note and in the text.

PAPER ELEMENTS AND FORMAT

APA Paper Elements and Format

Consistency in Paper Elements

Important for readers to focus on content, not presentation.
APA Style guidelines ensure consistency.

Overview of Paper Elements

Title page, abstract, text, and reference list mandatory for all papers.
Optional elements: tables, figures, appendices, supplemental materials.

Professional Paper Required Elements

Title Page (Sections 2.1-2.7)
- Paper title.
- Author names and affiliations.
- Author note (optional).
Page Headers (Sections 2.8 and 2.9)
- Running head and page numbers.
Abstract (Section 2.9)
- Summary of the paper's purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
Text (Section 2.11)
- Introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion.
Reference List (Section 2.12)
- Properly cited sources.
Optional elements: tables, figures, appendices, supplemental materials.

Student Paper Required Elements

Title Page (Sections 2.1-2.2)
- Student version.
Page Numbers (Section 2.8)
Text (Section 2.11)
Reference List (Section 2.12)
Optional elements: tables, figures, appendices.

Additional Paper Elements

Keywords (Section 2.13)
- For indexing and searching databases.
Footnotes (Section 2.14)
- Additional information that is not essential to the text.
Tables (Chapter 7)
- Organize and display data.
Figures (Chapter 7)
- Illustrate concepts visually.
Appendices (Section 2.14)
- Additional information that is not essential to the text but is too lengthy for the main document.
Supplemental Materials (Section 2.15)
- Data, audio or video recordings, questionnaires, etc.

Journal Publication Requirements

Refer to instructions for authors or manuscript submission guidelines for additional requirements.

Paper Elements

APA Style Paper Elements: Title Page

Professional Title Page:

Required for APA Style research papers. Elements:
- Title of the paper.
- Name of each author (byline) with corresponding affiliations.
- Author note.
- Running head and page number.

Figure 2.1: Sample Professional Title Page

Includes title, authors' names, affiliations, running head, and page numbers.

Student Title Page:

Students should follow their instructor's guidelines. Elements:
- Title of the paper.
- Name of each author (byline) with corresponding affiliation(s).
- Course number and name for which the paper is being submitted.
- Instructor name.
- Assignment due date.
- Page number.

Figure 2.2: Sample Student Title Page

Includes title, authors' names, affiliation, course information, instructor name, and due date.

Title:

Summarizes the main idea of the paper. Requirements:
- Centered and bold.
- In title case (capitalize the first letter of each word except for articles, prepositions, and conjunctions with three or fewer letters).
- Upper half of the page.
- Succinct and engaging.
- Essential terms included.

Effective Title Examples:

Effect of Depression on the Decision to Join a Clinical Trial.
Hierarchy and Team Effectiveness: Why and When It Impacts Performance.
Closing Your Eyes to Follow Your Heart: Avoiding Information to Protect a Strong Intuitive Preference.

Ineffective Title Examples:

A Study of the Effect of Depression on the Decision to Join a Clinical Trial.
Why and When Hierarchy Impacts Team Effectiveness - A Meta-Analytic Integration: An Overview.
Closing Your Eyes to Follow Your Heart: Avoiding Information to Protect a Strong Intuitive Preference - An Analysis of the Implications.

Author Name Byline

Author Byline

Author Name: first name, middle initial(s), last name; same form throughout career.
No professional titles or degrees in byline.
One blank line between paper title and byline.
Single author: centered, standard font.
Multiple authors: order by contributions, centered, separated by "and" for two, commas and "and" for three or more.
Affiliations: identify where work was conducted, up to two per author.

Affiliation Guidelines

Academic affiliation: department/division, institution (location if part of name).
Nonacademic institutional affiliation: department/division, institution, location.
Private practice or no institutional affiliation: location.
Spell out state, province, territory names.
Format: begin on new line after byline, different affiliations on separate lines, no blank lines between.

Author Byline Examples

Number of Authors and Affiliations	Example
One author, one affiliation	Maggie C. Leonard, Department of Psychology, George Mason University
One author, two affiliations	Andrew K. Jones-Willoughby, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University
One author, no institutional affiliation	Isabel de Vries, Rochester, New York, United States
Two authors, shared affiliation	Mackenzie J. Clement and Talia R. Cummings, College of Nursing, Michigan State University
Two authors, different affiliations	Wilhelm T. Weber1 and Latasha P. Jackson2 1 Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany 2 College of Education, University of Georgia
Three or more authors, shared affiliation	Madina Wahab, DeAndre L. Washington Jr., and Julian H. Lee, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley
Three or more authors, different affiliations	Savannah C. St. John1, Fen-Lei Chang2, 3, and Carlos O. Vasquez III1 1 Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, United States 2 MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, England 3 Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge

Affiliation Format

Begin on new line after byline.
Different affiliations on separate lines.
No blank lines between byline and first affiliation or between affiliations.

All Authors Share One Affiliation

Authors' Affiliations in Research Papers:

Single Author or Same Affiliation for All

One author with one affiliation: include affiliation below byline, no superscript.
No superscript numeral needed.

Multiple Authors, Same Two Affiliations

One author with two affiliations or same for all authors:
- Include each affiliation on separate lines below byline, no superscript.
- No need for numerals.

Different Affiliations Among Authors

Two or more authors with different affiliations:
- Use superscript Arabic numerals to link author names to their respective affiliations.
- Place superscript after surname, no space (for papers with multiple authors).
- Put corresponding number before affiliation, with a space between.
If some authors share an affiliation, list the affiliation once and reuse the superscript for each author sharing it.
Separate numerals of authors with two affiliations with a comma and space.

No Superscripts for Group Authors

For group authors (e.g., task forces), no need to use superscript numerals as they are considered their own affiliation.

Author Note

Author Note Components

First Paragraph: ORCID iDs

Provide ORCID iDs of contributing authors (https://orcid.org)
List each author on a separate, indented line, including the name and ORCID iD symbol with full URL.
Omit this paragraph if no authors have ORCID iDs.

Second Paragraph: Changes in Affiliation

Identify any changes in author affiliation after the study's completion
Use "Author's name is now at affiliation."
Include acknowledgement of deceased authors if applicable

Third Paragraph: Disclosures and Acknowledgments

Combine short disclosures and acknowledgments into one paragraph
Separate long ones into multiple paragraphs

Study Registration

If study was registered, provide registry name and document number in author note
For clinical trials and meta-analyses

Open Practices and Data Sharing

Acknowledge openly shared data or materials as part of publication
Cite the dataset in author note and include reference in reference list

Related Reports and Conflicts of Interest

Disclose if article is based on previously published reports, dissertations, or conference presentations
Include in-text citation for reference

Additional Components (as applicable)

Grant Support
Funding Agencies
Help and Support from Individuals and Organizations
Confirmation of Patient Consent and Institutional Approval

Formatting and Placement

Author note appears after the title page but before the abstract
May be single-spaced with double-spacing between paragraphs.

Fourth Paragraph: Contact Information

Running Head and Abstract

Running Head

Abbreviated version of paper title that appears at the top of every page.
Required for manuscripts being submitted for publication.
Should convey the title's idea in a shortened form.
Write in all-capital letters, flush left, across from the right-aligned page number.
Do not include "Running head" label on any page.
Maximum of 5 characters (counting spaces and punctuation).
Avoid abbreviations unless using ampersand (&).
Write in header on every page.

Abstract

Brief, comprehensive summary of paper contents.
Required for most scholarly journals.
Follow reporting standards from APA Section 2.
Check journal's instructions for length and formatting.
Place on a separate page after title page (i.e., page 2).
Write "Abstract" in bold title case, centered at the top of the page.
Abstract can be in paragraph or structured format.
For student papers: not required unless requested by instructor or institution.

Contact Information (Author Note)

Corresponding author answers queries regarding published work and ensures data retention.
Full name, mailing address, email provided for corresponding author.
Use the following format: "Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to..."
Place at bottom of title page below title, byline, and affiliation.
Labeled as "Author Note" (in bold).
Do not label paragraphs in paper.
ORCID iDs, change of affiliation, disclosures, and acknowledgments can also be included in author note.

Text Body

Preparing a Research Paper

Text Body
- Authors' main contribution to literature.
- Follow content and formatting guidelines (Sections 1.1-1.1).
- Review reporting standards: quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research (Chapter 10).
- Organization depends on paper type (Sections 1.1-1.1).

Text Body Components

Introduction
- Addresses importance and contextualizes work.
- States aims of the study.
Main Sections
- Quantitative research: Method, Results, Discussion.
- Qualitative research: Findings (or different headings).
- Brief student papers may vary.
Formatting
- Title centered, bold, and title case on first page.
- Left-aligned, double-spaced paragraphs with indented first lines.
- Use headings to separate sections.

Reference List

Cites and documents previous scholarship.
Should be sufficient to support research and contextualize it.
Detailed guidance on citing sources: Chapters 8 & 9.
Prepare reference list separately.

Format

Reference List and Footnotes

Reference List

Start on new page after text, before tables, figures, and appendices.
Label "References," capitalized and centered.
Double-space entries, including between references.
Hanging indent: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented .5 in.
Use word processing program to apply hanging indent.
Order: see Sections 9.44-9.49.

Footnotes

Can be included for supplementary content or copyright attribution.
Supplemental information: enhance text, not distract.
One idea per footnote.
Integrate ideas into text when possible.
Copyright attribution: lengthy quotes, test items, tables, figures.
Number consecutively in order of appearance with superscript Arabic numerals.
Follow punctuation mark except a dash.
No space before callout in text.
Do not place in headings.
Identify by number in text (e.g., "see Footnote 1").
Place at bottom of page using word processing program or separate page labeled "Footnotes."

Reference List and Footnote Examples (Refer to the sample professional paper for examples.)

Appendices

Appendices and Supplemental Materials

For supplementing paper content without distracting or being inappropriate.
Appendix: included in print and electronic versions of the article.
Supplemental materials: available online only.
Include if it aids understanding, evaluation, or replication of study.
Ensure ethical standards are met: copyright attribution, accurate data representation, human participant protection (Sections 1.1, 12.17).
Suitable for brief, easily presented print material.
Examples: stimulus materials, instructions, tests, complex equipment descriptions, detailed demographics, reporting items.
Label each appendix and title.
Begin each on a separate page after references, footnotes, tables, figures.
Use title case for label and title.
If multiple appendices, label each with a capital letter.
Mention in text by label.
Contains text, tables, figures, or combination.
Text appendix: write as regular indented paragraphs; number tables, figures, footnotes, equations (A.1 for sole text appendix).
Tables and figures within a text appendix must be mentioned in the appendix and numbered in order of mention.
If appendix consists of table or figure only, label takes place of number and title takes place of title.
If multiple tables/figures in one appendix, label and number them.

Supplemental Materials

Supplemental Materials

Published online only, enrich understanding of journal articles.
Appropriate for downloadable files and non-printable content.
Examples: video clips, audio clips, animations, lengthy computer code, oversized tables, intervention protocols, expanded methodology descriptions, color figures, printable templates, data files.

Requirements for Supplemental Materials

Sufficient information to make content interpretable with published text.
Comply with accessibility guidelines (online or interactive materials).
Make complete data sets available in online repositories or archives (Section 1.9).
Briefly describe materials in text or footnote (Section 2.1).

Submission and Peer Review

Submit with initial manuscript for most journals.
Subject to peer review.
Posted with no editing, formatting, or typesetting once accepted.
APA: link in published article leads to landing page (Section 1.14, 1.15).
Other journals may include links directly opening files.

File Types and Accessibility

Widely accessible formats recommended (e.g., PDF, JPG, PNG).
Less widely used file types or executable files only if critical to understanding/using material.
Many uncommon file types may be blocked by firewalls, antivirus programs.

Recommendations for Supplemental Materials

Submit in formats preferred by the journal publisher.
Avoid using less accessible file types unless necessary (Section 7.2).

Format

APA Style Paper Formatting

General Guidelines:

Well-prepared papers enhance professional image.
Mechanical flaws can mislead readers or question authors' expertise.
Properly format for publication.

Order of Pages:

Title page (page 1)
Abstract (start on new page after title page)
Text (start on new page after abstract)
References (start on new page after end of text)
Footnotes (start on new page after references)
Tables (start each on new page after footnotes or after references if no footnotes)
Figures (start each on new page after tables)
Appendices (start each on new page after tables and figures)

Page Header:

Page number, flush right
Running head in header for manuscripts being submitted for publication, flush left; student papers need only the page number.

Font:

Use a font that is accessible to all users: Calibri, Arial, Lucida Sans Unicode (sans serif) or Times New Roman, Georgia, Computer Modern (serif).
Recommended fonts for their legibility and availability of special characters.
Use the same font throughout the paper.
Use other fonts within figure images, computer code, or footnotes as needed.

Special Characters:

Type using word-processing program or MathType.
Present as images for unavailable characters.
Consult Sections .44 and .45 for Greek letters and mathematical symbols.

Line Spacing Double-space the entire paper, including the title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure not

Formatting Guidelines for Research Papers

Line Spacing
- Double-space entire paper: title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure notes, appendices (except as noted below).
- Title page: double-space elements, add two blank lines between title and byline, one blank line between last affiliation and author note.
- Tables and figures: single-spaced, one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced, depending on data presentation.
- Footnotes: single-spaced at bottom of page, double-spaced on separate page.
- Displayed equations: triple- or quadruple-spacing permitted.
No blank lines before or after headings.
Margins
- Default: 1-in. (2.54 cm) on all sides.
- Dissertations and theses may have different requirements for binding.

Line Spacing Exceptions

Title page: double-space elements, add two blank lines between title and byline, one blank line between last affiliation and author note.
Tables and figures: single-spaced, one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced as needed for effective data presentation.
Footnotes: single-spaced at bottom of page, double-spaced on separate page.
Displayed equations: triple- or quadruple-spacing permitted.

Margins

Default: 1-in. (2.54 cm) on all sides.
Dissertations and theses may have different requirements for binding.

Paragraph Alignment

Formatting Guidelines

Paragraph Alignment

Left-aligned with uneven right margin (ragged)
No full justification or manual line breaks

Paragraph Indentation

First line indented 0.5 in.
Centered titles, bylines, and affiliations for professional and student papers
Centered section labels
Flush left table and figure numbers, titles, notes
Hanging indent of 0.5 in. for reference list entries
Centered appendix labels and titles

Paper Length

Journal-specific targets; consult instructions for authors
Determined by word count (recommended) or page count
Shorten long papers through clear writing, eliminating repetition, etc.
Long professional papers may be divided into multiple papers

Formatting Exceptions

Title page: centered title, byline, affiliations for professional papers
Student papers: centered title, byline, affiliations, course info
Sections: centered and bolded labels
Abstract: flush left first line
Block quotations: indented 0.5 in., then an additional 0.5 in. for subsequent lines
Headings: Level 1 centered and bolded, Level 2 left-aligned and bold or bold italic
Tables and figures: flush left numbers and titles
Reference list: hanging indent of 0.5 in.
Appendices: centered labels and titles

Determining Paper Length

Word count: recommended method (count all words, including citations)
Page count: count every page, including title page and reference list
Follow journal-specific instructions if different

Formatting Tips

Avoid manual line breaks, hyphenation, or justification
Use automatic functions for paragraph formatting
Do not add words to figure images for word count
Consult the journal's instructions for authors for specifications

Organisation

Organizational Principles in Scholarly Writing

1. Importance of Organizational Structure

Clear, precise, and logical communication.
Consider best length and structure for findings.
Order thoughts at sentence and paragraph levels.

2. Use of Headings

Principles of Organization: Headings

Clear and Concise: help readers navigate content.
Consistent Formatting: same level for topics of equal importance.
Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section.

APA Style Headings

Heading Levels

Five possible levels: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Top-down progression: highest level first, even if fewer subheadings in a section.

Level of Headings

Level	Format
1	Centered Bold Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph
2	Flush Left Bold Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph
3	Flush Left Bold Italic Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph
4	Indented Bold Title Case Heading Ending With a Period Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph
5	Indented Bold Italic Title Case Heading Ending With a Period Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph

Headings in an Introduction

No "Introduction" heading needed.
Use Level 2, 3 headings (and so on) for subsections within the introduction.

Number of Headings in a Paper

Depends on length and complexity.
Use only necessary to differentiate sections.
No labeling with numbers or letters.

Section Labels

Section Labels

Centered and bolded at top of page.
Includes: Author Note, Abstract, Paper title, References, Footnotes, Appendix A, etc.

Journal Article Reporting Standards

Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)

Guidelines for authors on minimum information to include in journal articles.
Enhances clarity, accuracy, transparency, and scientific rigor.
Not prescriptive or dependent on topic or journal.
Helps compare research, understand implications, and conduct meta-analysis.

Overview of Reporting Standards

Enables readers to comprehend research, draw valid conclusions, evaluate manuscripts.
Facilitates replication, fosters transparency, and improves published research quality.
Flexible guidelines on where to include information within articles.
Information necessary for comprehension in text; optional information online.
Consult with journal editors for questions regarding reporting standards.

JARS Evolution

Initially addressed only quantitative research.
Updated to include qualitative and mixed methods research (JARS Qual, JARS Mixed).
Supports the publication of evolving research methods without restriction.

Why Use JARS?

Enhances reader understanding.
Facilitates manuscript evaluation.
Supports replication efforts.
Promotes transparency and published research quality.

Terminology

JARS: Journal Article Reporting Standards.
- JARS Quant, Qual, Mixed.
APA Style website: https://apastyle.apa.org/jars.
Transparency: ethical component in JARS.

Reporting Standards for Abstracts and Introductions

Clear and concise summaries of research content.
Background information, aims, hypotheses, methods, results, conclusions.

Specific Reporting Standards for Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Methods Research

Detailed reporting standards for each methodology.
Adapted to the unique aspects and needs of each research design.

Terminology Used in JARS

JARS Research Guidelines and Terminology

Methods and Traditions in Research: quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods.
Terminology: approaches to inquiry, data-analytic strategies, data-collection strategies, methodological integrity, research design, trustworthiness.
JARS Website: glossary of related terms (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/glossary).

Common Reporting Standards Across Research Designs

Abstract and Introduction: common reporting standards for both elements.
Abstract: a brief, comprehensive summary of the article's content (Section 2.9).
- Qualities of a Good Abstract: accurate, nonevaluative, coherent and readable, concise.
- Empirical Articles: problem under investigation, participants or data sources, essential features of the study method.

Abstract Standards (Continued)

Empirical Articles: include main hypotheses, research design, analytic strategy, data-gathering procedures, sample size/description of observations or participants.
Length and Formatting: specific requirements in Section 2.9.

Introduction Standards

Background: provide context for the study.
Literature Review: summarize relevant research.
Purpose Statement: clearly state objectives of the study.
Theoretical Framework: present guiding principles or frameworks used in the study.
Significance: explain why the topic is important and how this study contributes to knowledge.
Methods Section: describes the research design, participants, data collection procedures, analysis methods, and other relevant details (Sections 3.1 - 3.6).

Replication Articles

Abstracts:

Replication Articles:
- Type of replication: direct exact, literal, approximate, conceptual construct.
- Scope of replication.
- Original studies being replicated.
- Conclusions reached in the replication.
Quantitative or Qualitative Meta-Analyses:
- Research problems, questions, or hypotheses under investigation.
- Characteristics for inclusion:
  - For quantitative meta-analyses: independent variables, dependent variables, eligible study designs.
  - For qualitative meta-analyses: criteria for eligibility in terms of study topic and research design.
- Methods of synthesis: statistical or qualitative metamethods.
- Main results: number of studies, participants, observations or data sources, effect sizes, etc.
Literature Review Articles:
- Substantive content being reviewed: scope, period, general conclusions.
Theoretical Articles:
- How the theory or model works and principles.
- Phenomena accounted for and empirical results linkages.
Methodological Articles:
- General class, essential features, range of applications of methods or epistemological beliefs.
- Essential features: robustness, power efficiency (statistics), methodological integrity, trustworthiness (qualitative).

Introduction:

Introduce issues being studied and their historical antecedents.
Frame the importance of the problem in terms of psychological theory, potential applications, public policy, etc.
Set readers' expectations for the report content and scope.

Historical Antecedents

Introduction in Research: Components and Goals

Historical Antecedents

Review literature succinctly.
Convey problem's scope, context, and implications.
Clarify prior investigations and differences from earlier reports.
Describe key issues, debates, and theoretical frameworks.

Articulate Study Goals

State clear aims, objectives, or goals.
Rationale for design fit.
Quantitative: Identify primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses.
Derive from previous research or unplanned analyses.

Qualitative Goals

Develop theory, hypotheses, deep understandings.
Examine social constructs.
Address societal injustices.
Illuminate social discursive practices.
Describe research goals and approach to inquiry.
Approaches: Constructivist, critical, descriptive, feminist, interpretive, postmodern, postpositivist, pragmatic, psychoanalytic.
Address approach in Method section.

Mixed Methods Goals

Describe objectives for all study components.
Rationale for presentation within one study.
Clarify the order of presentation.
Reason for examining questions or hypotheses.

Goals for Other Types of Papers

Articulate motivation for the study.
Quantitative replication: Emphasize need to replicate and methods used.
Systematic review: Identify research question, objectives, and methods.
Meta-analysis: Describe objectives, data sources, and statistical techniques.
Case studies: Clearly state goals and research question.
Theoretical papers: Present the theoretical framework, implications, and contributions.

Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research

Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research

Basic Expectations for Reporting
- Minimal reporting standards in Table 1.
- Additional reporting features based on design or claims (consult JARS website).
Quantitative Design Reporting Standards (JARS)
- Title and Title Page
  - Identify main variables, theoretical issues, relationships, and populations studied.
  - Provide acknowledgments, funding sources, affiliations, and contact info.

Abstract

Objectives
- State research problem, including hypotheses.
Participants
- Describe human or animal subjects, their characteristics.
- Include genus and species for animals.
Study Method
- Research design (experiment, observational study).
- Sample size.
- Materials used (instruments, apparatus).
- Outcome measures.
- Data-gathering procedures, including secondary data sources.
Additional Reporting Standards (not in text, see JARS website)
- Ethics and Informed Consent.
- Statistical Analysis.
- Results.
- Discussion.
- Limitations and Future Research.

Notes:

Use tables to meet reporting standards for quantitative studies.
Ensure the content of Table 1 alone is not sufficient.
All empirical studies must include Table 1 features plus at least one additional table feature.

Findings

Report Structure for Empirical Research

Findings and Conclusions

Findings: present results, effect sizes, confidence intervals or statistical significance levels.
Conclusions: beyond just results, implications and applications.

Introduction

Problem: importance, theoretical or practical implications.

Review of Relevant Scholarship

Relation to previous work: how the study contributes or differs.
Hypotheses, aims, and objectives: specific research goals and theories.

Methodology

Participant Recruitment

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria: demographic restrictions.
Characteristics: age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, topic-specific.
- Animal Research: genus, species, strain number, health status, etc.
Sampling Procedures
- Method: systematic sampling or other plans.
- Participation Rate: percentage of approached participants.
- Self-Selection: individual or unit (schools/clinics).
- Settings and Locations: data collection sites, dates.
- Agreements and Payments: compensation for participation.
Institutional Review Board
- Ethical Standards: meeting ethical guidelines.
- Safety Monitoring: ensuring safety of participants.

Sample Size, Power, and Precision

Intended Sample Size: planned sample size.
Achieved Sample Size: actual number of participants.
Determination: based on effect size, power, or other factors.

Measures and Covariates

Define: primary and secondary measures, covariates.
Collection: methods used to collect data.

Quality of Measurements

Training and Reliability: ensuring consistent measurement.
Multiple Observations: collecting measurements multiple times.

Instrumentation

Validated Instruments: using established, validated measures.
Ad Hoc Instruments: creating new instruments for study.

Masking

Participants, Experimental Manipulations, and Outcome Assessors: aware of condition assignments.
Accomplishment: methods to ensure masking.
Evaluation: assessing the success of masking.

Psychometrics. Estimate and Report

Psychometric Analysis

Reliability Coefficients: estimate and report for scores analyzed.
Validity: convergent and discriminant where relevant.
Interrater reliability: subjectively scored measures and ratings.
Test-retest coefficients: longitudinal studies.
Internal consistency: composite scales.
Demographics: report for other samples if applicable.

Design

Manipulation: experimental or nonexperimental.
Randomization: present or absent.
JARS-Quant Tables: Table 2 (Experimental), Table 3 (Nonexperimental), Table 4 (Longitudinal).
Other Designs: report common name.

Data Diagnostics

Participant Exclusion: criteria for post-collection.
Missing Data: frequencies, causes (MCAR, MAR, MNAR), methods used for imputation.
Outliers: definition and processing.
Distributions: analyses of data.
Transformations: data transformations.

Analytic Strategy

Primary Hypotheses: inferential statistics, protection against error.
Secondary Hypotheses: same as primary but secondary.
Exploratory Hypotheses: same as primary but exploratory.

Results

Participant Flow
- Total number of participants at each stage.
- Flow through each stage (include figure).
Recruitment
- Dates defining periods of recruitment and measures or follow-up.
Statistics & Data Analysis
- Missing data: frequencies, causes, methods used for handling.
- Descriptions of outcomes, including total sample and subgroups, with number of cases, cell means, standard deviations, etc.
- Inferential tests conducted with exact p values and minimally sufficient statistics reported.
- Effect-size estimates and confidence intervals on estimates.
- Complex data analyses, including details of models estimated, associated variance–covariance matrices, statistical software used, estimation problems, regression diagnostics, analytic anomalies, and adjusted analyses.
Assumptions & Data Distributions
- Problems that could affect the validity of findings reported.

Discussion

Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS) for Quantitative Studies

Results and Discussion

Hypothesis Testing

Statement of support or nonsupport: distinguish primary and secondary hypotheses.
Discussion: implications of exploratory analyses, both substantive findings and error rates.

Experimental Studies

If study involved an experimental manipulation: follow JARS-Quant Table.

Non-experimental Studies or Single Case Studies

If no experimental manipulation: follow JARS-Quant Table 3 (for single case studies, use Table 5).

Interpretation

Sources of potential bias: discuss internal and statistical validity.
Imprecision of measurement protocols: evaluate accuracy and reliability of measures used.
Number of tests or test overlap: consider potential for increased error rates.
Sample sizes and sampling validity: assess representativeness of sample.
Generalizability (external validity): take into account:
- Target population (sampling validity).
- Contextual issues, including setting, measurement, time, ecological validity.

Implications

Discuss implications for future research, programs, or policy.

Specific JARS-Quant Tables to Follow Depending on Study Design

Step	For all quantitative studies	For studies with experimental manipulation	For single case studies (N-of-1)	If study was conducted without random assignment	If study qualified as a clinical trial	If data collected longitudinally	If study replicated earlier work
2	Follow JARS-Quant Table	Follow JARS-Quant Table	Follow JARS-Quant Table 5	Follow JARS-Quant Table 2, Module B/C	Follow JARS-Quant Table 2, Module C	Follow JARS-Quant Table	Follow JARS-Quant Table 6

Note: For more information on JARS-Quant, visit the APA Style JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars).

Quantitative Method Standards

Quantitative Research: Method Section and Participant Characteristics

Method Section

Provides essential information for study comprehension and replication.
Basic info should be included in main article, detailed procedures can be in supplemental materials.
Readability is crucial in deciding location of material.

Table 1: Content for Method Section of a Quantitative Article (JARS Quant Tables 2-9)

Participant Characteristics

Critical for psychology research: generalizing findings, comparisons, evidence use.
Demographic characteristics: age, sex, ethnicity, education, socioeconomic status, disability status, sexual orientation, gender identity, language preference.
Topic-specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in educational interventions).
Describe groups as specifically as possible for interpretation.
Importance: understanding sample nature, result generalizability.

Example of a Useful Characterization of a Sample:

Group 2: 40 cisgender women aged 20-30 (M=24.2, SD=2.1, Mdn=25.1) from El Salvador.
Permanent residents for 10+ years, lived in DC, had >12 years of education.
Subgroups: Asian participants - Chinese (30), Vietnamese (45); Latino/Hispanic American men - Mexican American (20), Puerto Rican (20).

Generalizability Considerations

Reporting less-used characteristics may give readers a more complete understanding.
Proves useful in meta-analytic studies incorporating article results.

The descriptions of participant characteristics should be sensitive to the ways the participants understand and express their identities, statuses, hi

Participant Characteristics

Describe sensitive to participants' identities, statuses, histories.
See Chapter 5 for writing without bias.
Nonhuman animal subjects: report genus, species, strain number.
- Number of subjects, sex, age, weight, physiological condition.

Sampling Procedures

Describe methods: systematic plan, participation rate, self-selection.
Inclusion/exclusion criteria.
Settings and locations, dates of data collection.
Agreements with participants, payments, ethical standards.

Sample Size, Power, and Precision

Intended sample size and conditions.
Achieved sample comparison to intended.

Measures and Covariates

Definitions of primary/secondary outcome measures, covariates.
Instruments used: psychometric properties, cultural validity.
Description of data collection methods.
Masking participants, assessors, manipulations.
Description of instrumentation: standardized assessments, physical equipment, imaging protocols.

Quality of Measurements

Methods to enhance measurement quality: training, multiple observers, translation, pretesting.
Attention to psychometric properties and contemporary testing standards.
Report psychometric characteristics for paper-and-pencil measures.
Interrater reliabilities for subjectively scored measures.
Internal consistency coefficients for composite scales.

Research Design

Research Design

Specify in Method section: experimental manipulations, natural setting, random assignment, between-subjects vs within-subjects design.
Consult JARS website for reporting standards based on design.
Mixed designs: specify name if not covered by JARS.

Experimental Manipulations or Interventions

Describe content of interventions/manipulations, including control groups.
Present instructions verbatim in appendix/supplementals if needed.
Include details on procedures, apparatus, settings, and delivery.
- Model number, key settings/params, resolution.
- Deliverer info: professional training, specific intervention training.
- Number of deliverers, mean, std dev, range.
Description of setting, quantity & duration, time span for delivery, compliance enhancers.
Translation methods when using instruments in different languages.
Grouping during data acquisition: individual, small groups, intact groupings (e.g., classrooms).
Analyze smallest unit to assess effects; if analytic method differs from unit of randomization, describe it.

Data Diagnosis

Data Analysis Process

Data Inspection: outlier detection, processing, transformations, missing data treatment
Analytic Strategies: primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses
- Exploratory: suggested by the data collected.
Error-rate considerations: experiment-wise, false discovery rate
Statistical Power: effect size, sample size, hypothesis testing
Quantitative Results: summarize data and analyses, report in detail, discuss implications

Data Sharing

Raw data availability: supplemental materials or archived online
Include all results, regardless of significance

Participant Flow

Describe flow of participants through the study
- Total number recruited, assigned to groups, reasons for dropouts, participants used in primary analyses
Recruitment periods and sources

Statistics and Data Analysis Reporting

Accurate, unbiased reporting
Robust methods, clear insights into data
Follow organizational structure: primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses
Report results of data diagnoses (Section 7)

Important Elements in Reporting Data Analysis

Data Diagnosis: outlier detection, processing, transformations, missing data treatment
Analytic Strategies: primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses
- Exploratory: suggested by the data collected.
Error-rate considerations: experiment-wise, false discovery rate
Statistical Power: effect size, sample size, hypothesis testing
Quantitative Results: summarize data and analyses, report in detail, discuss implications
Data Sharing: raw data availability, include all results

Participant Management

Describe participant flow through the study: total number recruited, assigned to groups, reasons for dropouts, participants used in primary analyses.
Recruitment periods and sources.

Reporting Standards

Accurate, unbiased reporting of data analysis results.
Use robust methods with clear insights into the data.
Follow organizational structure: primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses.
Report results of data diagnoses.

Data Availability

Raw data sharing: supplemental materials or archived online.
Include all results, regardless of significance.

Method

Guidelines for Reporting Statistical Results in Psychology Research

Background

Historically, null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) used extensively.
APA emphasizes complete reporting, beyond just NHST results.

Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST)

Use of NHST varies among fields and publishers.
Minimum expectations for all APA journals: full reporting of tested hypotheses, effect sizes, and confidence intervals.
Always report research findings accurately and responsibly.

Missing Data

Report frequency or percentage of missing data.
Describe causes: missing completely at random (MCAR), missing at random (MAR), or not missing at random (NMAR).
Disclose methods for addressing missing data, if used.

Reporting Results and Interpreting Statistical Tests

Include per-cell sample sizes, observed cell means, standard deviations, or pooled variance.
In multivariable analytic systems, report associated means, sample sizes, and variance covariance matrices.
Specify test statistics (e.g., t, F, chi-square), degrees of freedom, exact p value, effect size, and measure of variability for inferential statistical tests.

Confidence Intervals

Combine information on location and precision, can be used to infer significance levels.
Use a single confidence level throughout the article.
Base discussion and interpretation on point and interval estimates.
Include details when using complex data-analytic techniques, such as structural equation modeling or Bayesian techniques.

Effect Sizes

Report effect sizes to help readers understand the magnitude of findings.
Effect sizes may be reported in original units or standardized measures (e.g., Cohen's d).
Provide confidence intervals for each effect size reported to indicate precision.

Studies With Experimental Manipulations or Interventions

Clarify whether analysis was by intent-to-treat: all participants assigned to conditions included, regardless of intervention receipt.

Quantitative Discussion Standards

Discussion Section in Quantitative Research

Evaluate and interpret results.
Discuss implications for hypotheses.
Clear statement of support/nonsupport for primary and secondary hypotheses.
Address ambiguous outcomes.

Results Interpretation

Theoretical and practical consequences.
Similarities and differences with other work.
Contextualize, confirm, and clarify conclusions.

Limitations and Strengths

Internal validity (bias, imprecision, overall tests, sample sizes).
Intervention implementation, mechanism, and fidelity.
Generalizability (population differences, applicability, settings).

Study Implications

Importance of problem.
Larger issues transcending the subfield.
Theoretical, clinical, or practical significance.
Real-life psychological phenomena explained/modeled.
Applications warranted.
Unresolved problems and new issues.

Additional Reporting Standards for Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies

Experimental Studies: unit of randomization, masking provisions.
Nonexperimental Studies: unit of assignment, assignment methods and restrictions.

General Reporting Standards

Apply to all quantitative studies (Table .1).
Additional standards depending on design features or empirical claims.
Figure .1 for flowchart of applicable reporting standards.

Experimental Studies with Random Assignment

Describe unit and randomization procedures.
Unit in analysis outcomes.
Masking provisions.

Nonexperimental Studies with Nonrandom Assignment

Describe unit and assignment methods/restrictions.
Procedures to minimize selection bias (matching, propensity score matching).

Clinical Trials

Research Designs: Clinical Trials and Nonexperimental Studies

Clinical Trials

Subset of randomized controlled studies.
Evaluates health interventions' effects on health outcomes.
Prospectively assigns people to experimental conditions.
Reporting standards: registration, site-specific considerations, study protocol, data safety and monitoring board, follow-up period.

Nonexperimental Studies

No variable manipulation; observational, correlational, or natural history studies.
Describe design, participant selection and sampling methods, variables, comparability across groups, limitations.

Longitudinal Studies

Observe same individuals with the same measurements at multiple times.
Combine with other research designs.
Reporting standards: sample recruitment and retention, attrition, contextual changes, instrumentation changes, previously published data.

N-of-1 Studies

Unit of study is a single entity (usually a person).
No combination of results from several cases.
Describe design type, phases, randomization, sequence, participant results, raw data for target behaviors and outcomes.

Special Designs

Clinical Trials

Registered: report registration on title page and in text.
Multisite trial: provide details of any site-specific considerations.
Data safety and monitoring board: describe and any stopping rules used.
Follow-up period: provide rationale for length.

Nonexperimental Studies

Longitudinal studies: report on sample recruitment, retention methods, attrition, contextual changes, instrumentation changes, previously published data.

N-of-1 Studies

Describe design type and phases, randomization, sequence, participant results, raw data for target behaviors and outcomes.

Reporting Standards for All Research Studies

Longitudinal studies: combine basic underlying study structure reporting standards with longitudinal aspects reporting.
N-of-1 studies: describe design type, phases, randomization, sequence, participant results, raw data.

Replication Articles

Replication Articles

Type of Replication: direct exact, literal, approximate, conceptual construct.
Comparisons: recruitment procedures, demographic characteristics, instrumentation, modifications made to measures, psychometric characteristics, informants and methods of administration.

Standards for Analytic Approaches

Reporting Standards: complex, address the needs of analytic approaches like structural equation modeling (SEM) and Bayesian techniques.
Quantitative Research: reporting standards available on JARS website.

Structural Equation Modeling

Standards: specification of initial model(s), estimation, model fit assessment, respecification of the model(s), reporting of results.

Bayesian Techniques

Standards: specify the model, describe and plot distributions, describe computation of the model, report Bayes factors, report Bayesian model averaging.

Quantitative Meta-Analysis

Reporting Standards: available on JARS website, specific to meta-analyses but can generalize to other quantitative research synthesis approaches.
Units of Analysis: research reports, primarily features are numerical estimates of effect sizes.

Qualitative Research Reporting Standards (JARS)

Heading	Description
Title Page	Identify key issues, acknowledge funding sources or contributors, conflicts of interest
Abstract	State problem question and objectives, study design, main results, findings, significance
Guidance for Authors	Include at least one keyword describing method and types of participants or phenomena. Describe approach to inquiry if it facilitates review process.

Basic Expectations for Qualitative Research Reporting

Specific reporting standards for qualitative research articles: Method, Findings/Results, Discussion sections.
Not all elements may be applicable to all qualitative studies due to their varied procedures and methods.

Introduction

Introduction

State the problem or question and its context.
Review, critique, and synthesize literature to clarify issues, debates, theoretical frameworks, and knowledge gaps.

Research Problem or Question

Frame the research problem or question.
Identify key issues and debates.
Clarify theoretical frameworks.

Study Objectives/Aims/Research Goals

State the purpose(s) of the study.
Target audience, if specific.
Provide rationale for design selection.
Describe approach to inquiry.

Guidance for Authors

Explain relation to prior publications or articles.
Qualitative studies may be divided into multiple manuscripts.

Method

Research design overview: data collection strategies, data analytic strategies, approaches to inquiry.
Rationale for selected design.
Method sections can be written in a chronological or narrative format.
Allow other investigators to arrive at conclusions with similar methodological integrity.
Processes of qualitative research are often iterative and evolve throughout the inquiry process.

Researcher Description

Researchers' backgrounds and prior understandings of phenomena under study.
Management and influence on research from prior understandings.

Guidance for Authors

Provide details about researchers' demographic, cultural characteristics, credentials, experience, values, decisions in selecting archives or materials to analyze.

Participants or Other Data Sources

Number of participants/documents/events analyzed.
Demographics, cultural information, perspectives, and characteristics of data sources.
Existing data sources.
Data repository information for openly shared data.
Archival searches or processes of locating data for analyses.

Researcher Participant Relationships

Describe relationships and interactions between researchers and participants.
Impact on research process.
Ethical considerations relevant to prior relationships.

Participant Recruitment

Participant Recruitment

Recruitment Process: face-to-face, telephone, mail, email.
Protocols: institutional review board approval, vulnerable populations adaptations, safety monitoring.
Incentives/Compensation.
Number of Participants: rationale for chosen number; no minimum in qualitative studies.
Attrition and final number of participants.
Rationale for halting data collection: saturation.
Study Purpose: convey to participants as needed.

Guidance for Authors & Reviewers

Order and contents of recruitment process and selection process may vary based on methodology.

Participant Selection

Selection Process: purposive, convenience, snowball, theoretical sampling.
Data Sources: archived data sets, recruitment and selection processes, decisions on participants.
Rationale: clarify how number of participants fits the study design.

Guidance for Authors

Descriptions should be accessible to readers.

Data Collection

Form of Data: interviews, questionnaires, media, observation.
Protocols: origins and evolution, alterations based on findings or rationale.
Process: others present, frequency, duration, context.
Engagement: depth, time intensity.
Time Duration: mean and range for interviews.
Reflexivity: use in data collection, illuminates study.
Content of Central Questions: open vs closed format.

Guidance for Reviewers

Researchers may use specific terms for data collection within their approach.
Detailed descriptions should be accessible to readers.
Not necessary to reproduce all interview questions in unstructured or semistructured interviews.

RECORDING AND DATA TRANSFORMATION

Data Recording and Transformation

Methods: audio recording, visual recording, field notes, transcription.
Analysis: describe methods, purpose, coding, thematic analysis, units of analysis, analytic scheme development, software.

Guidance for Authors

Use clear terms accessible to readers.
Provide rationales for analytic choices.

Methodological Integrity

Warranted claims based on methodology.
Descriptions across paper sections.

Findings

Present compatible with study design.
Illustrations, quotes, and excerpts.

Guidance for Authors

Use artistic presentations alongside reporting standards.
Quotes and excerpts should augment, not replace, findings description.

Guidance for Reviewers

Flexibility in checks used, depending on research approach.
Describe findings, meaning, and understandings derived from data analysis.
Demonstrate analytic process of reaching findings.

Characteristics of Findings Section

Longer than quantitative papers due to demonstrative rhetoric.
Combine findings and discussion or use personalized discursive style.
May or may not include quantified information.

Discussion

Guidance for Writing a Discussion Section in Qualitative Research

Discussion Structure

Central contributions: describe significant findings and their implications.
Types of contributions: challenge, elaborate on, or support prior research/theory.
Similarities and differences: compare to existing theories and findings.
Alternative explanations: consider other possible interpretations.
Strengths and limitations: assess methodological integrity.
Transferability limits: consider contextual applicability.
Ethical dilemmas: address challenges and provide suggestions.
Implications for future research, policy, or practice.

Reviewing Qualitative Papers

Multiple solutions: findings may have more than one valid interpretation.
Organization: researchers may combine sections based on their tradition and study's specificity.
Length: qualitative papers require greater detail due to unique features:
- Analytic methods explanation and justification
- Researcher background and beliefs disclosure
- Raw data transformation into findings
Flexibility in length: accommodations should be made for comprehensive reporting.
Communication with editors: collaborate on finding a suitable solution when facing page limits.

Qualitative Method Standards

Qualitative Research Method Standards: Components of the Method Section

Research Design Overview

Summarizes research design.
Mentions data collection strategies, analytic strategies, and approaches to inquiry.
Rationale for design selection (if not mentioned in objectives).

Researcher Description

Backgrounds of researchers: demographic, cultural, identity, credentials, training, values.
Management and influence of prior understandings on research.

Participants or Other Data Sources

Number, demographics, relevant perspectives, data sources description.
Information about data repositories.
Details on locating and accessing data.

Participant Characteristics and Personal History Factors

Relevant characteristics for specific contexts and topics (e.g., age, gender, race).
Sensitive to participants' understanding of their identities.
Other features within study influencing the phenomenon.
Driven by prior research, researcher experience, pilot interviews, goals, contextual dynamics, and empirical data.

Participant Characteristics Reporting Considerations

Age, gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status.
Sexual orientation, immigration status, disability, other relevant features.
Sensitive reporting to participants' expressions of their identities, histories.

Researcher Backgrounds and Prior Understandings

Demographic, cultural, identity characteristics.
Credentials, experience with phenomena under study, training, values.
Influence on research: enhancement, limitation, or structure.

Data Collection Strategies

Interviews, observations, focus groups, content analysis, discourse analysis, member checking, ethnography.

Data Analytic Strategies

Coding, categorization, constant comparison, thematic analysis, narrative analysis, grounded theory, discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis, ethnomethodology, case study analysis, phenomenological analysis, and others.

Approaches to Inquiry

Constructivist, interpretive, critical, pragmatic, postpositivist, feminist, etc.

Table .2 (not mentioned in text)

A table summarizing different components of qualitative research design.

Researcher–Participant Relationships

Researcher-Participant Relationships

Describe relationships: provide details on any existing relationships between researchers and participants.
Ethical considerations: disclose any potential impact on research process.

Participant Recruitment

No minimum number of participants for qualitative studies.
Provide rationale for chosen number.
Describe recruitment method (face-to-face, telephone, mail, email).
Explain how study purpose was conveyed to participants.
Disclose incentives or compensation given.
Report ethical processes: institutional review board approval, vulnerable populations, safety monitoring.

Participant Selection

Describe process of selecting participants from identified group.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Participant selection process (purposive sampling, convenience sampling, theoretical sampling, diversity sampling).
Context of study: data collection time and sites.
Archived dataset selection process and decisions affecting participants.

Data Collection

Researchers may use specific terms for data collection based on approach.
Describe form of data collected (interviews, questionnaires, media, observation).
Alterations to data-collection strategy.
Central questions: content and format.
Data selection or collection process: presences of others, number and duration of collections, context.
Extensiveness of engagement.
Reflexivity in the data-collection process.

Recording and Data Transformation

Identify how data were recorded for analysis.
Describe any data transformations (audio or visual recording methods, field notes, transcription).

Analysis

Qualitative Analysis in Research

Data Analysis

Description: report on methods, procedures, and goals.
Units of Analysis: entire transcript or units, explain formation.
Categories or Codes: describe development (emerged or a priori).
Analytic Procedures: coding, thematic analysis, etc.
Coders/Analysts: training and involvement.
Data Analysis Software: mention if used.

Methodological Integrity

Adequacy: assess data ability to capture relevant diversity.
Researchers' Perspectives: manage impact on data collection and analysis.
Groundedness: demonstrate findings are grounded in evidence.
Supplemental Checks: add transcript feedback, triangulation, etc., for strengthening methodological integrity.

Examples of Supplemental Checks

Transcripts or data returned to participants for feedback
Triangulation: multiple sources, findings, investigators
Interview thoroughness checks: ensure completeness and accuracy
Consensus or auditing processes: verify results with peers or experts
Member checks or participant feedback on findings
Data displays or matrices: visual representations of data
In-depth thick description, case examples, illustrations
Structured methods of researcher reflexivity (memos, field notes, etc.)
Checks on utility of findings in responding to study problem.

Evaluation of whether a solution worked

Qualitative Research: Findings and Discussion

Findings in Qualitative Research

Depending on the study's goals, approach, and characteristics, qualitative research may or may not include quantified information.
Use the term "Findings" instead of "Results" if appropriate.
Describe development of findings, e.g., themes, categories, narratives, and their meaning to study's purpose.
Quotes, evidence, or excerpts from data analysis may be used, but should not replace descriptions.
Present findings in a manner compatible with the study design (e.g., grounded theory, ethnography).
Illustrations, diagrams, tables, models, photographs, and videos can be used to convey qualitative findings.

Qualitative Discussion Standards

Discussion section communicates the contributions of the study in relation to prior literature and goals.
Interpretations of findings should consider study limitations and alternative explanations.
Describe applications of findings and future research directions.
If presenting multiple studies, discuss them in order within the paper.

Interpreting the Meaning of Qualitative Findings

Develop readers' understanding of issues by describing central contributions and their significance.
Identify similarities/differences from prior theories and research findings.
Describe how findings contribute and their best utilization.
Reflect on alternative explanations for clarity.

Limitations and Strengths

Identify strengths and limitations of the study.
Discuss potential issues with data quality, source, or analytic processes.
Describe limits to generalizability or transferability across contexts.

Study Implications

Convey implications of findings for future studies (e.g., emerging research questions, theoretical insights).
Discuss policy, clinical practice, and advocacy applications.

Qualitative Meta-Analysis Standards

Qualitative Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards

Reporting on the Aggregative Process

Detailing and defending study selection and analysis process
Communicating methodological approaches of reviewed studies
Describing authors' own approach to secondary data analysis
Interpretive aggregation of thematic findings, not reanalysis of primary data
Ranging from replication assessment to narrative accounts
Considering contradictions and ambiguities within and across studies

Reporting Situatedness

Examining the perspectives, social positions, and contexts of primary study authors
Including situatedness in Findings Results or Discussion
Presenting narratively or in tables for simplified trend presentation
Distinguishes qualitative meta-analyses from primary analyses

Unique Aspects of Qualitative Meta-Analysis Reporting

Aggregative Process

Detailing methodological choices and analysis process
Describing approaches of reviewed studies
Aggregating findings through interpretation

Reporting Situatedness

Considering authors' perspectives, positions, and contexts
Including situatedness in results or discussion

Importance of Reporting Standards in Qualitative Meta-Analysis

Enhances methodological integrity
Clarifies transparency and accountability
Facilitates comparison across studies.

Reporting Standards for Mixed Methods Research

Mixed Methods Research Reporting Standards

Reporting Expectations
- Table outlines basic expectations (presented in text as ". .")
- Qualitative and quantitative reporting standards in Sections 5-12 and 1-17, respectively.
Title and Title Page
- Follow JARS guidelines (Tables 3.1-3.2).
Author Note
- Follow JARS guidelines (Tables 3.1-3.2).
Abstract
- Indicate mixed methods design type.
- Describe approaches to inquiry and their combination.
- Report main results and implications.
Guidance for Authors
- Avoid qualitative or quantitative specific terms.
- Reference mixed, qualitative, and quantitative methods.
Introduction
- Description of research problems and questions.
Guidance for Authors
- Address literature barriers necessitating both data types.
Theory or Conceptual Framework
- Depends on specific design or procedures used.
- Used inductively or deductively (or both).
Study Objectives, Aims, and Goals
- Three types: qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods.
- Order to reflect mixed methods design type.
- Describe how approaches are combined and their impact on objectives.
Guidance for Reviewers
- Familiarize with mixed methods objective, aim, or goal.
- Understand the results from the mixed methods phase (e.g., integrating quantitative and qualitative evidence).

Method. Research Design Overview

Mixed Methods Research

Definition: involves rigorous methods, both qualitative and quantitative (refer to JARS–Quant and JARS–Qual Standards for details).
Types of Designs: convergent design, explanatory sequential design, exploratory sequential design.
Rationale: appropriate due to the paper's goals, allows for richer data and in-depth understanding (see Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 for qualitative and quantitative standards).

Participants or Other Data Sources

Clearly identify qualitative and quantitative data sources.
State their characteristics and relationship between the sets.
Use an implementation matrix to describe sources, research questions, and anticipated outcomes.

Guidance for Authors

Separate descriptions of samples when they differ.
Use a table to outline data sources, timing, and participants.

Researcher Description

Include statements about researchers' backgrounds and experiences with qualitative and quantitative research (refer to JARS–Qual Standards for details).

Participant Recruitment

Participant Sampling or Selection: describe qualitative and quantitative sampling separately, relate to design type.
- Qualitative:
  - Methods used.
  - Participant characteristics.
- Quantitative:
  - Participant selection methods.
  - Sample size.
Participant Recruitment: discuss strategies for each data source.

Data Collection

Data Collection Identification Procedures: follow JARS standards for both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Recording and Transforming the Data: follow JARS–Qual Standards for procedures (Table 3.2).

Data Analysis

Qualitative Data Analysis: describe the process, techniques used.
Quantitative Data Analysis: describe statistical tests, interpretation of results.
Mixed Methods Analysis: describe how quantitative and qualitative results were integrated according to design type.

Validity, Reliability, and Methodological Integrity

Methodological Integrity: ensure that the research process was sound.
Quantitative Validity and Reliability: assess for accuracy and consistency in quantitative data collection and analysis.
Mixed Methods Validity or Legitimacy: demonstrate the validity of combining qualitative and quantitative results according to design type (refer to JARS–Quant and JARS–Qual Standards for further assessments).

Findings Results

Mixed Methods Research: Findings and Discussion

Findings

Reporting Standards: JARS–Quant and JARS–Qual (Tables 3.1–3.2).
Sequence: Depends on the mixed methods design (qualitative or quantitative comes first).

Guidance for Authors

Qualitative Findings: Present themes, codes, etc.
Quantitative Results: Present categorical or continuous data.
Integration: Use joint display tables or graphs for comparison.

Reviewers' Guidance

Analysis: Review joint displays of qualitative and quantitative results.

Discussion

Reporting Standards: JARS–Quant and JARS–Qual (Tables 3.1–3.2).
Sequence: Reflects the procedures in mixed methods design.
Implications: Discusses implications of integrated findings.

Mixed Methods Research: Designs and Integration

Designs: Convergent, exploratory sequential, explanatory sequential (Creswell et al., 2017).
Standards: Quantitative and qualitative research methodology plus mixed methods.
Integration: Describe the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.

Writing Style and Grammar

Effective Scholarly Writing

Four Qualities: Continuity, flow, conciseness, and clarity.
Guidance: Techniques and principles for effective scholarly writing (Sections 4.1 to 4.11).

General Rules for Grammar and Usage

Follow standard rules for grammar and usage to improve your writing.

Suggested Strategies for Improving Your Writing

Read widely and often.
Write frequently and practice editing.
Get feedback from peers and instructors.

Continuity and Flow

Effective Writing: Continuity and Flow

Characteristics of effective writing: continuity, logical consistency; flow, smooth cadence.
Lack of continuity and flow can make arguments seem less credible, disorganized or confusing.
Readers will better understand ideas if presented logically with clear relationships.

Improving Continuity and Flow

Check transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and ideas:
- Ensure text is smooth and clear rather than abrupt or disjointed.
- Use additional transitional devices to make it less choppy.
Use punctuation marks appropriately for meaning and relationships.
Avoid overusing or underusing one type of punctuation.
Transitional words and phrases: time links, cause effect links, addition links, contrast links.
Adverbs as introductory or transitional words should be used judiciously.

Noun Strings

Noun strings: multiple nouns placed one after another to modify a final noun can confuse readers.
Untangle noun strings by moving the final noun earlier and showing relationships with verbs or prepositions.
Examples:
- skinfold test body fat percentage -> a caliper examination to determine body fat percentage
- preliminary online collegiate instructional methods survey results -> preliminary results of an online survey of collegiate instructional methods.

Importance of Conciseness and Clarity

Importance of Conciseness and Clarity in Writing

Concise writing: more readable, increases chances of success.
Avoid adding extraneous material or "fluff."
If paper is too short, develop ideas further for substance.
Eliminate wordiness, redundancy, evasiveness, and passive voice.
Use clear language, define technical terms, be deliberate with word choice.
Be consistent in usage of words and phrases.
Avoid synonyms that may cause imprecision.
Considerate in use of descriptive terms for people and avoid bias-free language.

Wordiness and Redundancy

Wordiness: using more words than necessary.
Avoid embellishments and flowery writing.
Use sentence structure to convey emphasis instead.
Use active voice to reduce wordiness and redundancy.
Redundancy: using multiple words with the same meaning.
Use active voice or sentence structure to convey emphasis.

Examples of Wordy vs. Concise Language

Wordy	Concise
at the present time	now
for the purpose of	for, to
there were several students who completed	several students completed

Redundant Language

"they were both alike" -> "one and the same"
"a sum total" -> "in close proximity to"
"four different groups saw" -> "completely unanimous"
"were exactly the same as" -> "positioned very close"
"absolutely essential" -> "period of time"
"has been previously found" -> "summarize briefly"
"small in size" -> "the reason is because"

Avoiding Wordiness and Redundancy

Use active voice.
Omit redundant words.
Use sentence structure to convey emphasis.

Sentence and Paragraph Length

APA Writing Style: Sentence and Paragraph Length

No specific minimum or maximum sentence length in APA style.
Varyed sentence length maintains reader interest and comprehension.
Avoid overuse of short, simple or long, complex sentences.
Use logical sentence structures for complex concepts.
Break down long sentences with multiple ideas into shorter ones.
Paragraphs should be appropriate in length; single-sentence and excessively long paragraphs are to be avoided.

APA Writing Style: Tone

Clear communication is essential.
Devices used in creative writing (ambiguity, shifts in topic/tense) unsuitable for scientific writing.
Focus on ideas and findings with a professional and compelling style.
Write for a specific reader to improve understanding and appreciation.
Avoid contractions and colloquialisms for a formal tone.
Use precise, scholarly language instead of approximations and jargon.

Sentence and Paragraph Length (continued)

Sentences should be clear and easy to follow.
Long sentences are acceptable if complex ideas are presented logically.

Tone (continued)

Write in a professional, noncombative manner when contrasting positions of different researchers.
Use language that is formal and professional.

Avoid Contractions and Colloquialisms

Use full forms instead of contractions for professional tone.
Precise language and avoid approximations.
Jargon hinders comprehension, use precise language instead.
Ensure your writing is accessible to readers outside your field.

Jargon

Specialized terminology may be unfamiliar to non-experts.
Overuse of jargon impedes understanding and wastes space.
Define any necessary jargon on first use.
Avoid using euphemisms or bureaucratic jargon.

Logical Comparisons

Clear and Logical Comparisons

Ensure comparisons are expressed clearly: "Twelve-year-olds were more likely to play with age peers than -year-olds." -> "12-year-olds were more likely to play with their age peers than with those of other ages."
Use parallel structure and clear key words.

Avoiding Anthropomorphism

Do not attribute human characteristics to animals or inanimate objects: "Rat couples" is an example of anthropomorphism, use "pairs of rats" instead.
Write with care when using comparisons and metaphors.
Be aware that some constructions, like "this section addresses" or "the chapter focuses on," are acceptable.

Communication Clarity

Use active verbs with human actors: "we extrapolated the rate of change."
Determine what constitutes anthropomorphism based on understanding and potential misleading implications for readers.
Keep clear communication as a priority when making word choices and sentence structures.

Comparisons

Be precise in comparisons to avoid ambiguity: "Twelve-year-olds were more likely than -year-olds to play with age peers." -> "12-year-olds were more likely to play with their age peers and less likely to play with those of other ages."
Use parallel structure to avoid ambiguous comparisons.

Anthropomorphism Examples

Correct	Incorrect	Rationale
Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.	Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.	"Rat couples" implies a misleading parallel between human romantic couples and pairs of rats.
The theory addresses this issue.	The theory concludes this issue.	Researchers address issues, not theories themselves.

Acceptable Constructions

Some constructions are acceptable even if they appear anthropomorphic: "this section addresses," "the chapter focuses on."
However, it's important to consider context and implications for readers.

Grammar and Usage

Grammar and Usage

Verbs
- Tenses: past, present perfect, active voice, passive voice.
- Use consistent verb tenses (Table 4.1).
- Avoid sudden shifts in tense.
- Past tense: for discussing other researchers' work.
- Present perfect tense: for actions not at a specific time or continuing to the present.
Active and Passive Voice
- Active voice: subject + verb + object.
- Passive voice: object + verb (past participle) + subject (optional).
- Use active voice for clear, direct sentences.
- Passive voice acceptable for focusing on the object or recipient of the action.
Mood
- Indicative mood: making factual statements.
- Subjunctive mood: describing conditions contrary to fact.
- Use "would" with care.
Subject and Verb Agreement
- A verb must agree in number with its subject.
- Collective nouns: singular or plural based on context.
- Compound subjects joined by "or" or "nor": the verb agrees with the closer subject.

Verbs

Tenses: past, present perfect.
Use consistent tenses in a paper.
Past tense: for discussing other researchers' work.
Present perfect: for actions not at a specific time or continuing to the present.

Voice

Active voice: subjects come before verbs and objects.
Passive voice: objects come before verbs and "by" + subject.
Use active voice for clear, direct sentences.
Passive voice acceptable when focusing on object or recipient of action.

Mood

Indicative mood: expresses facts.
Subjunctive mood: describes improbable or contrary-to-fact conditions.
Use "would" with care: as a habit or in the conditional mood.

Subject and Verb Agreement

A verb must agree in number with its subject, regardless of intervening phrases.
Collective nouns: singular if the action applies to the group, plural if it applies to individuals.
Compound subjects joined by "or" or "nor": the verb agrees with the closer subject.

Table 4.1 - Verb Tenses in Various Parts of a Paper

Paper section	Recommended tense	Example
Literature review (discussing other researchers' work)	Past	Quinn (2020) presented...
Present perfect	Since then, many investigators have used...
Method	Past	Participants completed a survey...
Reporting of results	Past	Results were nonsignificant...
Discussion of implications of results	Present	The results indicate...
Presentation of conclusions, limitations, future directions	Present	We conclude...

Bias-Free Language Guidelines

Pronouns

Pronoun Usage in Research Writing

First- versus Third-Person Pronouns

Clear attribution: refer to yourself or coauthors clearly using first person for singular, third person for plural.
Avoid third person when not referring to a specific author or contribution.

Avoiding Ambiguity

Use "I" for single authorship.
Use "we" for multiple authors.
Use "they" as generic third-person pronoun or for individuals who use "they/them/their" pronouns.

Editorial We

Avoid using editorial "we" to refer to yourself, coauthors, or general people in multiauthored papers.

Singular They

Use "they," "them," "their," "theirs," and "themselves" for the singular third-person pronoun when referring to individuals whose gender is unknown or irrelevant.

Avoiding Gender Bias

Rephrase sentences if the singular "they" seems awkward or distracting.
Use plural nouns or plural pronouns instead of gendered pronouns.
Replace the pronoun with an article when possible.
Drop the pronoun in some cases.

Examples of Correct Usage

"Each participant turned in their questionnaire."
"Jamie shared their experiences as a genderqueer person."
"A child should learn to play by themselves or themself as well as with friends."
"Rowan, a transgender person, helped themselves or themself to the free coffee."

Gender and Pronoun Usage (Section 5.5)

Use "he or she" and "she or he" sparingly and ensure matching pronouns.
Avoid "s(he)" or "s he," instead use "they" or rewrite the sentence.

Pronouns for People and Animals

Pronouns for People and Animals

Who: human beings
That / Which: nonhuman animals, inanimate objects
- Use neuter pronouns for animals unless named and sex is known
Correct usage:
- Humans: "The students who completed the task"
- Nonhumans/inanimate objects: "The instructions that were included"
Incorrect usage:
- Humans: "The students that completed the task"
- Nonhumans/inanimate objects: "The participants whom passed the exam"

Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

Relative pronouns can be subjects or objects of verbs or prepositions
Use "who" as subject, "whom" as object
- Test: Replace subordinate clause with personal pronoun to determine if who/whom is correct.
- Example: Participants who passed the exam -> They passed the exam and were given course credit (Subject: they)
- Incorrect example: Eligible participants, each of whom had a child under age 21 with cancer -> Eligible participants each of them had a child under age 21 with cancer (Subject: they)

Pronouns in Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Who/Whom: introduces subordinate clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence (restrictive clauses) or add further information but not essential (nonrestrictive clauses)
Use "that" for restrictive clauses, "which" for nonrestrictive clauses
- Restrictive clauses: no commas
  - Therapist self-disclosure that conflicts with the patient's story might hinder the therapeutic process (Only self-disclosure conflicting with the patient's story is problematic)
- Nonrestrictive clauses: set off with commas
  - All interviews were conducted at participants' offices, which provided suitable privacy to secure participants' anonymity (Both interviews and offices provide suitable privacy)
Consistent usage helps improve clarity and precision.

Sentence Construction

Subordinate Conjunctions

Introduce subordinate clauses: "since," "while," "although," "because," "whereas."
Be precise with meaning to improve clarity.
Use "while" for simultaneous events, "although," "despite," "and," or "but" otherwise.

Subordinate Conjunctions vs. Other Words

"While": links simultaneous events. Use "although," "despite," "and," or "but" for other comparisons.
"Since": can mean "from a time in the past" or "because." Use "because" when meaning is clear to avoid ambiguity.

Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers: make it hard for readers to follow sentence logic by ambiguously or illogically modifying words.
Place adjectives and adverbs as close as possible to the word they modify.

Squinting Modifiers

Ambiguous placement makes it difficult to determine which phrase is being modified.
Write in active voice to avoid dangling modifiers.

Misplaced "Only"

Place "only" next to the word or phrase it modifies for clarity.

Dangling Modifiers

Have no referent in the sentence, often due to passive voice.
Write in active voice to avoid dangling modifiers.

Examples of Corrected and Incorrect Sentences with Rationale

Correct	Incorrect	Rationale
Using this procedure, I tested the participants.	The participants were tested using this procedure.	I, not the participants, used the procedure.
Based on this assumption, we developed a model.	On the basis of this assumption, we developed a model.	The incorrect construction says, we are based on this assumption.
These data only provide a partial answer.	These data only provide a partial answer.	The answer is partial, not the providing of it.
My comprehension is improved when I read slowly.	Reading books slowly improves my comprehension.	It is unclear whether the reading or the improvement is slow.
Using this procedure, the investigator tested the participants.	The investigator tested the participants using this procedure.	The incorrect sentence is unclear about who used the procedure.
Participants were leaving since the light turned green.	Participants left because the light turned green.	"Since" was ambiguous and caused confusion, replace it with "because."
Armitage and Martine (2017) found that the treatment group performed better, a result congruent with those of other studies.	Congruent with other studies, Armitage and Martine (2017) found that the treatment group performed better.	The result, not Armitage and Martine, is congruent.

Parallel Construction

Parallel Construction in Writing

Enhance understanding: present parallel ideas in identical grammatical form (Section .49).
Parallel structure: compound sentences, series, lists, table stubs (Section .7.12).

Repetition of Parallel Elements

Ensure all elements of parallelism are present before and after the coordinating conjunction.
Use same grammatical form for each part of parallelism.
Do not use commas or semicolons before coordinating conjunctions when there are only two parts in a clause.

Examples of Correct Usage

"Ford (2020) found that homework is positively related to achievement and that the association is stronger in middle and high school than in elementary school."
"We recorded the difference between the performance of participants who completed the first task and those who completed the second task."
"The names were difficult both to pronounce and to spell."
"Neither the responses to the auditory stimuli nor the responses to the tactile stimuli were repeated."
"The respondents either gave the worst answer or the best answer."
"It is surprising not only that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this result but also that all other predictors were less accurate."
"The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and to ask about anything they did not understand."

Examples of Incorrect Usage

"Ford (2020) found that homework is positively related to achievement, and that the association is stronger in middle and high school than in elementary school."
"We recorded the difference between the performance of participants who completed the first task and the second task."
"between 2.5–4.0 years old" (incorrect use of en-dash)
"The names were difficult both to pronounce as well as to spell." (avoid using "both" with "as well as")
"Neither the responses to the auditory stimuli nor to the tactile stimuli were repeated." (correct, no need for "to" before "were repeated")
"The respondents either gave the worst answer or the best answer."
"It is not only surprising that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this result but also that all other predictors were less accurate." (avoid using "not only" with "but also" in this way)
"The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and that they should ask about anything they did not understand." (incorrect use of comma before "and" in list)

Series Elements

All elements in a series should be parallel in form.
Correct: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and to ask about anything they did not understand.
Incorrect: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and that they should ask about anything they did not understand. (incorrect use of comma before "and" in list)

Strategies to Improve our Writing

Strategies for Improving Writing

Reading to Learn: read examples in the same field to learn new developments and effective ways to convey information.
- Literature Reviews: see various organization methods.
- Complex Statistical Information: examine how others have presented similar data.
Writing from an Outline
- Helps maintain logical flow.
- Identifies main ideas, subordinate ideas, and headings.
- Avoids tangents and omissions.
Rereading the Draft:
- Refreshes perspective, revealing overlooked faults.
- Reading aloud strengthens tone and style.
- Reverse order to ensure proper argument setup.
Seeking Help from Colleagues:
- Provides critical feedback.
- Helps prepare for journal reviews or classroom critique.
Working with Copyeditors and Writing Centers
- Assists with language use, organization, and other areas.
- Recommended for authors struggling to get published or students seeking academic success.
Revising a Paper:
- Develop a revision plan (big picture to details).
- Review for:
  - Clear central point/thesis?
  - Logical argument flow?

Additional Considerations

Check institutional policies on assistance with academic work.

Bias-Free Language Guidelines

Bias-Free Language Guidelines

Overview:

Strive for unbiased language in writing
Avoid perpetuating prejudicial beliefs or assumptions
Use affirming and inclusive language

APA's Commitment:

Advance science, fair treatment of individuals and groups
Guideline against biased language

Prejudicial Beliefs and Assumptions:

Against: age, disability, gender, participation in research, racial or ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status

Importance:

Respect for participants and readers
Accurate, unbiased communication

Cultural Practice:

Powerful influence on writers
Check writing for biases
Consult groups for appropriate terminology

Language Changes Over Time:

Use individuals/communities preferred terms
Good judgment required

Specific Topics:

Age
Disability
Gender
Participation in research
Race and ethnicity
Sexual orientation
Socioeconomic status
Intersectionality

Additional Guidance:

APA Style website for examples (https://apastyle.apa.org)

General Guidelines:

Use unbiased language
Avoid stereotyping
Be specific and precise

Examples of Bias-Free Language:

People-first approach: "person with a disability" instead of "disabled person"
Inclusive terms: "participant" instead of "subject"
Nonjudgmental language: "individuals from racial or ethnic minority backgrounds" instead of "minorities" or "ethnic groups"

Conclusion:

Practice reading for biases
Use respectful and precise terminology
Contribute to accurate, unbiased communication.

General Guidelines for Reducing Bias

Bias-Free Writing Guidelines

1. Precise and Accurate Language

Describe people accurately and clearly
Avoid bias or prejudicial connotations
Choose terms that are free from imprecision

2. Focus on Relevant Characteristics

Describe only relevant characteristics
Include only necessary information
Discuss intersection of multiple relevant characteristics, as appropriate

3. Acknowledge Existing Differences

Recognize and acknowledge differences when they exist
Evaluate meaning of "difference" carefully
Report differences between sample and target population

4. Be Appropriately Specific

Choose terms that are appropriately specific
Consider level of specificity early in research process
Use exact ages or age ranges for age
Use names of conditions for disability
Use descriptors with modifiers for gender identity
Use terms indicating research context for participants
Use nation or region of origin for racial/ethnic groups
Use names of orientations for sexual orientation
Use income ranges or specific designations for socioeconomic status.

Examples of Specific Language

Age: exact ages or age ranges, include mean and median
Disability: names of conditions
Gender Identity: descriptors with modifiers (cisgender women, transgender women)
Participants: terms that indicate research context (patients, participants, clients)
Racial/Ethnic Groups: nation or region of origin (Chinese Americans, Mexican Americans)
Sexual Orientation: names of orientations (lesbians, gay men, bisexual people, straight people)
Socioeconomic Status: income ranges or specific designations (below the federal poverty threshold for a family of four).

Be Sensitive to Labels

Use of Labels and Language

Be Sensitive to Labels:

Call people what they call themselves
Determine appropriate labels for research
Consult self-advocacy groups or participants
Be cautious with stigmatizing language

Acknowledge People's Humanity:

Use labels with respect for individuality and humanity
Avoid using labels as nouns or equating people with their conditions
Use clear, appropriate operational group labels

Provide Operational Definitions and Labels:

Provide definitions of groups in research papers
Use descriptive and clear operational group labels
Avoid false hierarchies and biased comparisons

Be Aware of Social Implications:

Consider the order and presentation of social groups in research
Avoid implying dominance or normality of certain groups

Language and Labels for People with Disabilities:

Use preferred labels, such as "Deaf" capitalized or person-first/identity-first language depending on the community
Provide operational definitions and clear group labels
Avoid false hierarchies and biased comparisons

Additional Considerations:

Determine appropriate labels for research based on groups' preferences and debates within the community
Use adjectival forms instead of nouns to label people
Be sensitive to changing language and terminology over time.

Reducing Bias by Topic

Writing about Age in Research: Guidelines

Reporting Age in Method Section

Report age as part of participant description
Be specific: ranges, means, medians
Avoid open-ended definitions

Terms for Different Age Groups

Younger Ages:

Infant: very young child
Child: individual under 12 years
Adolescent: individual aged 1 to 17 years
Girl, Boy, Transgender girl, Transgender boy, etc.
Agender adolescent, Gender-fluid child, etc.
Appropriate terms: person, individual

Older Ages:

General Guidance:

Older adults are a subgroup of adults
Be specific: age ranges, means, medians
Preferred terms: older persons, older people, older adults, older patients, etc.
Avoid stigmatizing terms: seniors, elderly, aging dependents, etc.
Use dementia instead of "senility"
Specify type of dementia when known
Aging is a normal part of human experience
Gerontologists may use combination terms (young-old, old-old)

Terms for Older Adults:

Older adults: 5 years and older
Young-old: specific age range (e.g., 60-74 years)
Old-old: specific age range (e.g., 75+ years)
Oldest old: specific age range (e.g., 85+ years)

Contrasting Older Adults with Other Age Groups:

Be specific when contrasting older adults with other age groups (young adults, middle-aged adults)
Use decade-specific descriptors if desired (octogenarian, centenarian)
Avoid generational descriptors (baby boomers, Gen X, millennials, etc.) unless related to the study topic.

Disability

Disability and Disability Language

Broad term for physical, psychological, intellectual, and socioemotional impairments (World Health Organization)
Preferred terms for specific disabilities vary among disability groups
Honoring group's language choices shows respect and solidarity

Types of Disability Language

Person-First Language:

Emphasizes the person, not the condition
Example: "person with paraplegia"
Applies to groups as well: "people with substance use disorders"

Identity-First Language:

Focuses on disability as part of identity
Example: "blind person"
Expression of cultural pride and reclamation of identity
More likely preferred by those who embrace disability as part of their identity

Choosing Between Person-First and Identity-First Language:

Both approaches respect disabled persons
Seek guidance from self-advocacy groups or stakeholders specific to a group
Use participants' self-described language when working directly with them.

Relevance of Mentioning a Disability

Disability

Relevance: mention disability when necessary and relevant
Specificity: different types and levels of disabilities within groups should be articulated
Negative terminology: avoid pictorial metaphors, negativistic terms, slurs

Gender and Sex

Gender: attitudes, feelings, behaviors associated with biological sex; social construct and identity
Reporting: use precise language to describe gender identities of participants
Sex: biological sex assignment
Distinction between gender and sex: both may be relevant in certain studies
Gender identity: deeply felt sense of being a particular gender
Reporting of gender identity: explicitly designate information about participants' gender identities
Cisgender: sex assigned at birth aligns with gender identity
Transgender and gender-nonconforming people: individuals whose gender identity, expression, or role does not conform to cultural associations with their sex assigned at birth
Prejudice and negativity towards transgender and gender-nonconforming people

Terminology

Use terms preferred by individuals
Avoid ambiguity over "sex" meaning sexual behavior
Gender identity is distinct from sexual orientation.

Additional Considerations

Include definitions and explanations of terms for clarity
Be aware of the evolution of language related to gender and sex
Use identity labels that align with individuals' stated identities

Sex Assignment

Language and Terminology

Avoid Disparaging Terms:

"birth sex," "natal sex," "tranny," "transvestite"
Use "assigned sex" or "sex assigned at birth" instead

Appropriate Use of Gender Terms:

Use name given by individuals to refer to themselves
Use specific nouns (e.g., women, men, transgender men, etc.)
Use "male" and "female" as adjectives, not as nouns
Use inclusive terms like "individuals," "people," or "persons"
Avoid gendered endings in occupational titles

Pronoun Usage:

Do not refer to identified pronouns as "preferred pronouns"
Use specific pronouns for known individuals
Singular "they" when gender is irrelevant or unknown
Avoid sexist bias in pronoun usage
Avoid using combinations of "he or she," "she or he," etc.

Terms That Imply Binaries:

Do not use "opposite sex" or "opposite gender"
Use "another sex" or "another gender" instead
Use "mixed gender" or "mixed sex" for relationships with different genders or sexes
Use "same gender" or "same sex" for relationships with the same gender or sex

Additional Considerations:

Respect confidentiality when referring to individuals
Use accurate and inclusive language in research and publications.

Participation in Research

Participation in Research

People participate in research in various settings: labs, homes, schools, businesses, clinics, hospitals
Descriptive terms: "college students," "children," "respondents," "participants," "subjects," "patients," or other terms
Specific terms for statistical contexts: "subjects" and "sample"
In health care setting, use "patient"
Respect individual and cultural preferences when choosing language

Differences between Terms

Case vs. person: differentiate between disorder/illness and the person affected by it (e.g., "people with bipolar disorder were treated" instead of "manic depressive cases were treated")
Avoid terms like "patient management," "patient placement"; use alternatives such as "coordination of care," "supportive services," "assistance"
Use precise and clear language for broad clinical terms (e.g., "borderline" or "at risk"); specify context and meaning
Use active voice to acknowledge participants' contributions

Terminology

Avoid using "failed" when describing research results; use more neutral language like "did not complete"
Write about people in a respectful and acknowledging way.

References:

Knatterud, K. T. (1991). Ethics in psychological research: A practical guide. American Psychological Association.

Racial and Ethnic Identity

Racial and Ethnic Identity

Terms used for racial and ethnic groups change over time due to personal preference and dated labels
Be specific and sensitive when labeling
Race refers to socially significant physical differences (e.g., Aboriginal, African American, Asian, European American)
Ethnicity refers to shared cultural characteristics (e.g., Latino, Māori)
Use participants' preferred terms
Be clear and specific with racial and ethnic categories (e.g., Japanese American instead of Asian American)
Use commonly accepted designations (e.g., census categories)

Terminology Guidelines

Capitalize proper nouns for racial and ethnic groups (Black, White, Native American, etc.)
Avoid using colors to refer to human groups and hyphens in multiword names
Use lowercase for "people" when describing individuals
Do not use outdated terms like "Negro," "Afro-American," or "Oriental"
Be specific when referring to Asian origin (South Asia, Southeast Asia, etc.)
European origin can be referred to as White, European, European American, European Australian, etc.

Terms for Specific Groups

People of African Origin:

People of African descent have varied backgrounds and experiences
Preferred terms: Black or African American
Avoid using Negro or Afro-American
Be specific when referring to ethnicity (Nigerian, Kenyan, etc.)

People of Asian Origin:

Use "Asian" for people from Asia, "Asian American" or "Asian Canadian" for those from North America
Avoid using "Oriental" as it is pejorative or outdated
Be specific when referring to regional origin (South Asia, Southeast Asia, etc.)

People of European Origin:

Use White or European for people from Europe
Use European American, European Australian, etc. for those from other regions
Avoid using Caucasian as it is discouraged.

Indigenous Peoples Around the World

Guidelines for Referencing Indigenous Peoples and Other Ethnic Groups

Indigenous Peoples

Use self-identified names, "people" or "nation"
In North America: "Native American," "Hawaiian Native," specify when possible
In Canada: "Indigenous Peoples," "Aboriginal Peoples," specify when possible
In Alaska: "Alaska Natives," specify when necessary
Avoid term "Eskimo"

Latin America and the Caribbean

Refer to as "Indigenous Peoples," specify when possible
Examples: Quechua, Aymara, Taño, Nahuatl

Australia

Refer to as "Aboriginal People" or "Aboriginal Australians," specify when necessary
Examples: Anangu Pitjantjatjara, Arrernte

New Zealand

Refer to as "Māori" or "Māori people"

People of Middle Eastern and North African Descent

Specify nation of origin when possible
Use "Arab Americans" for those who claim Arab ancestry and reside in the US

People of Hispanic or Latinx Ethnicity

Consult participants, explain choice of term if necessary
Use nation of origin when possible
Examples: Bolivian, Salvadoran, Costa Rican

Parallel Comparisons

Avoid nonparallel designations
Use "Blacks and Whites," "African Americans and European Americans," or "Asian Americans and African Americans" instead.

Avoiding Essentialism

Language and Racial Identity

Essentialist language regarding race discouraged
Avoid phrases like "Black race" and "White race"
Use terms like "people of color," "underrepresented groups" instead of "minorities"
When necessary, use "racial minority," "ethnic minority" with modifier
Use specific group names when possible
Avoid assuming all members of a group are underprivileged

Sexual Orientation

Part of individual identity including attraction and affiliation
Use term "sexual orientation" instead of "sexual preference," "identity" or "orientation identity"
Orientation itself is not a choice
Can be conceptualized by degree of sexual and emotional attraction (sexual, demisexual, asexual)
Can also be conceptualized by directionality of attraction (men, women, both, neither, etc.)
Some people may be attracted to nonbinary gender identities or have an attraction not predicated on gender identity.

Terms for Sexual Orientation

Sexual Orientation

Terms: lesbian, gay, heterosexual, straight, asexual, bisexual, queer, polysexual, pansexual
Self-identification is best
Umbrella terms: sexual and gender minorities, sexual orientation and gender diversity
Specific terms: LGBTQ+, define if used
Inaccurate or pejorative terms: avoid "homosexual," use identity-first terms

Gender Identity vs. Sexual Orientation

Gender identity: a person's perception of their own gender
Sexual orientation: attraction to other people

Terminology for Sexual Minorities

Use specific, identity-first terms (bisexual people, queer people)
Avoid "homosexual," "homosexuality"
Avoid reducing identities to sexual behavior
Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is normative

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Encompasses income, education, occupational prestige, subjective perceptions
Predictor of psychological outcomes
Report SES in Method section
Precise terminology essential to minimize bias

Reporting SES

Income: report household size, relation to federal poverty guidelines
Education: degrees, level of education
Occupation: job title, industry, professional status
Contextual and environmental conditions: housing, neighborhood characteristics.

Pejorative or Stereotyping Terms

Language and Stereotyping Terms

Avoid pejorative terms when discussing socio-economic status (SES)
Specific, person-first language: "mothers who receive TANF benefits" instead of "welfare mothers"
Use "people experiencing homelessness," not "the homeless"
Racial and ethnic descriptors necessary to avoid implicit biases

Implicit Biases and Deficit-Based Language

Implicit biases around economic and occupational status
Deficit-based language blames individuals instead of societal context
Focuses on what people lack, not what they possess

Alternative Language

"People who do not have a high school diploma or equivalent" instead of "high school dropouts"
Adopt a strengths-based perspective: "people who have a grade school education"
Emphasize opportunity gap instead of achievement gap.

Intersectionality

Introduction:

Intersectionality: a paradigm addressing multiple dimensions of identity and social systems
Individuals shaped by cultural, structural, sociobiological, economic, and social contexts

Intersectionality:

Addresses multiple dimensions of identity and social systems
Inequality related to racism, genderism, heterosexism, ageism, classism, etc.
Individuals located within various social groups and their structural inequalities
Unique identities based on individual experiences and social locations

Intersectional Identities:

Examples: Black lesbian women, Laotian immigrant woman with a disability, Jewish American adolescent
Perspectives shaped by multiple identities and contexts, some oppressed and some privileged
Oppressed and privileged aspects interact to shape experiences

Addressing Intersectionality in Research:

Identify relevant characteristics and group memberships (race, gender, class, etc.)
Describe how characteristics intersect in a study's context
Report participant data using specific terms
Note the impact of intersections on findings instead of assuming one characteristic is responsible.

Intersectionality Key Concepts:

Cultural: beliefs, values, practices, and symbols that shape individuals’ experiences
Structural: social structures, institutions, and power relationships
Sociobiological: biological characteristics and their interaction with social systems
Economic: resources and material conditions
Social contexts: family, peer groups, schools, workplaces, etc.

Style

Style and Writing Guidelines

Style+ refers to guidelines for clear, consistent communication in written works
APA Style provides scholarly writing guidelines for publications and academic papers
Avoids inconsistencies among and within journal articles and academic papers
Covers punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical copy, and lists

Punctuation

Establishes the cadence of a sentence (commas, semicolons, colons, periods, dashes, parentheses, square brackets)
Determines pauses in thought (length and kind)

Spacing After Punctuation Marks

One space after periods or other punctuation marks at the end of a sentence
No space in specific cases: internal periods in abbreviations, colons in ratios, identity-concealing labels for study participants

Period Use

End complete sentences
With initials in names

Abbreviations

Requiring Periods

US, UK as adjectives
Identity-concealing labels for study participants
Latin abbreviations
Reference abbreviations
Era designations
To end each element within a reference (except DOIs and URLs)

Not Requiring Periods

State, province, or territory names
Capital letter abbreviations and acronyms
Academic degrees
Routes of administration
Metric and nonmetric measurement abbreviations
After URLs in the text
After DOIs or URLs in the reference list
Inch or inches abbreviation

Note: Follow publisher or instructor's guidelines if different.

Comma Usage

Comma Usage

Use a comma:
- Between elements in a series of three or more items (serial comma or Oxford comma) e.g., height, width, and depth
- After an introductory phrase if it's short: e.g., After the nurses administered the medication, patients rated their pain.
- To set off a nonessential or nonrestrictive clause: e.g., Strong fearful faces, which are rarely seen in everyday life, convey intense expression of negative emotions.
- To set off statistics: e.g., Sleep amount was not significantly different between the three groups (nap M 7.48 hr, SD 1.99, wake M 8.13 hr, SD 1.22, nap wake M 7.25 hr, SD 0.76), F(2, 71) 2.32, p .11.
- To separate groups of three digits in most numbers: e.g., 7 years 4 months 2 min 35 s 5 ft 10 in.
- To separate two independent clauses with conjunctive adverbs: e.g., The children studied the vocabulary words however, they had difficulties with recall.
- To separate items in a list that already contain commas: e.g., The color groups were red, yellow, and blue, orange, green, and purple or black, gray, and brown.
- To separate multiple parenthetical citations: e.g., (Gaddis, 2018 Lai et al., 2016 Williams Peng, 2019)
- To separate different types of information in the same set of parentheses: e.g., n 33 (Fu Ginsburg, 2020).
- To separate sets of statistics that already contain commas: e.g., age, M 34.5 years, 95 CI 29.4, 39.6 years of education, M 10.4 8.7, 12.1 and weekly income, M $612 $522, $702.
Do not use a comma:
- Before an essential or restrictive clause: e.g., Adolescents who spent a small amount of time on electronic communication activities were happier than those who spent no time on such activities.
- Between the two parts of a compound predicate: e.g., Participants rated the items and completed a demographic questionnaire.
- Retrieved (exact dates) or in (months and years): e.g., Retrieved April 24, 2020, from or in April 2020.
- In the following cases: because removing these would alter the intended meaning: e.g., because removing such a clause from the sentence would alter the intended meaning.
Use a semicolon:
- To separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction: e.g., Students received course credit for participation; community members received 10.
- To separate items in a list that already contain semicolons: e.g., The color groups were red, yellow, and blue; orange, green, and purple or black, gray, and brown.

Colon

Colon Usage

Colon used after grammatically complete introductory clause
- Introductory clause can stand alone as a sentence
- Illustrates, extends, or amplifies thought following colon
- Capital letter required if it's a complete sentence
Three patterns of mother-infant attachment: secure, avoidant, resistant ambivalent
Colon not used after incomplete introduction

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks used for:
- Linguistic examples or as themselves
- Letters, words, phrases, or sentences
- Stimuli in text (alternatively, use italics)
- Labels (after first occurrence only)
- Periodical article or book chapter titles in text and copyright attributions
Quotation marks not used for:
- Key terms or phrases (use italics instead)
- Anchors of a scale
- Numerals when meaning clear without quotation marks.

Dashes

Two types of dashes in APA Style: em dash and en dash
Em dash: set off an element for amplification or digression
- No space before or after
- Overuse weakens flow
En dash: between words of equal weight, numerical ranges
- No space before or after
- Word processors can insert automatically.

Miscellaneous

Target behaviors: eating, sleeping, socializing
Participants asked to rank items and explain choices
Two kinds of hyphens: minus signs and abbreviations with dashes
Hyphen preferred in abbreviations with embedded dashes.

Parentheses

Use of Parentheses

Set off structurally independent elements: (e.g., statistically significant (see Figure 5))
Set off in-text citations: (Barnes and Spreiter 2019) described (Proctor Hoffmann 2016)
Introduce abbreviations: (see also Section .25), galvanic skin response (GSR), Child Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI Schaefer 1965)
Set off letters that identify items in a list: (a) synonyms associated with cultural interactions, (b) descriptors for ethnic group membership, and (c) psychological symptoms and outcomes associated with bicultural adaptation
Group mathematical expressions: (k – 1) (g – 2)
Enclose numbers that identify displayed formulas and equations: (to enclose statistical values that do not already contain parentheses was statistically significant p .031)
Note: If a complete sentence is in parentheses, place the end punctuation inside the parentheses.

Use of Square Brackets

Enclose parenthetical material that is already in parentheses: (The results for the control group n 8 are also presented in Figure 2.)
Enclose abbreviations when the abbreviated term appears in parentheses: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 MMPI-2 Butcher et al., 2001
Enclose values that are the limits of a confidence interval: 95 CIs –7.2, 4.3, 9.2, 12.4, and –1.2, –0.5
Enclose material inserted in a quotation by someone other than the original author: (Schofield et al. 2016 found that these types of warm and accepting parenting behaviors are positively associated with healthy child and adolescent adjustment (p. 615).)
In mathematical material, the placement of brackets and parentheses is reversed
Around the year in a narrative citation when the sentence containing the narrative citation appears in parentheses: (as Gregory, 2020, concluded . . . )

Misuse of Parentheses and Square Brackets

Avoid nested parentheses, use square brackets instead: (e.g., flow Csiks entmihalyi, 2014)
Do not enclose statistics that already include parentheses in parentheses: in the first study, F(1, 32) 4.37, p .045

Placement of Punctuation

Place end punctuation inside parentheses if the entire sentence is in parentheses
Place punctuation outside parentheses if only part of the sentence is in parentheses

Slash

Slash Usage

Use slash for:
- Compound adjectives: clarify comparison, hyphenated compounds
- Classification and judgment condition
- Test reliability: test-retest
- Specifying possibilities: and or
- Separating numerator from denominator
- Units of measurement with numeric values
- Do not use slash for:
  - Compound units: use dots and parentheses
  - Phrases instead of slashes

Spelling in APA Style

Use Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary for base words, APA Dictionary of Psychology for psychological terms
Plural forms of Latin/Greek origin: appendices, criteria, curricula, data, phenomena

Singular and Plural Nouns

Singular: appendix, criterion, curriculum, datum, phenomenon
Plural: appendices, criteria, curricula, data, phenomena

Possessive Forms of Names

Add an apostrophe and "s" for singular or names ending in "s"

Technology Terms Spelling

email
ebook
ereader
database
data set
smartphone
internet
intranet
Wi-Fi
website
webpage
home page
username
login page (verb: log in)
emoji (plural: emojis or emoji)

Hyphenation

Compound Words and Hyphenation

Introduction:

Compound words can be written as separate words, hyphenated, or solid
Permanent compounds are established in the dictionary and should be written according to its listing
Temporary compounds are created for specific uses and should be hyphenated for clarity when necessary

Permanent Compounds:

Can be found in dictionaries
Follow the dictionary's hyphenation guidelines
Examples: "health care," "self-esteem," "caregiver"

Temporary Compounds:

Not listed in the dictionary
Follow these guidelines for hyphenation:
- If misreading is possible or expresses a single thought, use a hyphen
- If clear without a hyphen, do not use one

Hyphen Guidelines for Temporary Compounds:

Before the noun it modifies: "decision-making behavior," "water-deprived animals"
After the term it modifies: "behavior related to decision making," "students in the 12th grade"
With adverbs and comparative/superlative adjectives: "widely used test," "higher order learning"
With numbers, letters, or fractions: "six-trial problem," "Type II error," "one third of the participants"
With prefixes and suffixes: see Tables 2 and 3 for examples

Prefixes and Suffixes That Do Not Require Hyphens:

Examples: "retrievable," "intercede," "covariate," "nanometer," etc. (See Table 2)

Exceptional Cases:

Words with a capitalized base word: "pro-Freudian"
Compounds with numbers or abbreviations: "post-1977," "pre-UCS trial"
Multiple words: "non-achievement-oriented students"
Self-compounds: "self-report technique," "self-esteem"
Misunderstood words: "re-pair (pair again)," "un-ionized (not ionized)"
Words ending in a, i, or o and starting with meta-, anti-, co-, etc.: "meta-analysis," "anti-intellectual," "co-occur"

Conclusion:

Hyphenation is essential for clear communication in written language.
Use dictionaries to guide permanent compound usage.
Temporary compounds require specific guidelines for hyphenation.

Capitalization

Capitalization in APA Style

Lowercase:

pe (personal pronoun)
a, an, and the (articles)
first word after a colon if what follows is not a complete sentence
van de Viver et al. (authors' names)
lowercase statistical terms: t test, p value
specific university departments, academic institutions, and academic courses: Psychology 101, Science of Nursing Practice
trade and brand names: iPhone, Android phone

Capitalize:

Proper nouns and proper adjectives
Names of racial and ethnic groups: Black women
Departments of Psychology, San Francisco State University
Wi-Fi, wireless, hotspot
APA Style

Do not capitalize:

Proper adjectives that have common meaning, except for personal names within these terms: eustachian tube, cesarean section but: Freudian slip, Wilks's lambda, Euclidean geometry.

Lowercase vs Capitalized:

Zoloft (trade name): sertraline (generic name)
Proper adjectives that have a common meaning: eustachian tube, cesarean section, Freudian slip, Wilks's lambda, Euclidean geometry.

Job Titles and Positions

Capitalizing Job Titles and Positions

Capitalize job titles or positions when they precede a name (e.g., President Lincoln)
Do not capitalize when titles follow a name or refer to a position in general (e.g., Abraham Lincoln was president of the United States)
Capitalization for specific job titles: President, Vice President, CEO, Executive Director, Manager, Professor, Instructor, Faculty, Dean, Psychologist, Psychiatrist, Counselor, Social Worker, Physician, Doctor, Nurse, Registered Nurse, Advanced Practice Nurse, Nurse Practitioner

Capitalizing Diseases, Disorders, Therapies, and Related Terms

Do not capitalize diseases or disorders (e.g., autism spectrum disorder, diabetes mellitus, depression)
Capitalize personal names within disease or disorder names (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Down syndrome, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma)
Do not capitalize therapies and treatments in general (e.g., cognitive behavior therapy, immunotherapy, applied behavior analysis)
Capitalize specific therapies or treatments when part of a proper noun (e.g., Pavlovian conditioning, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Freudian theory)

Capitalization of Titles and Headings

Title Case:

Capitalize the first word, even if it is a minor word (e.g., "The" in "The Bilingualism Across the Lifespan: Factors Moderating Language Proficiency")
Capitalize the first word of a subtitle, even if it is a minor word (e.g., "Factors Moderating Language Proficiency" in "Bilingualism Across the Lifespan: Factors Moderating Language Proficiency")
Capitalize major words, including the second part of hyphenated major words (e.g., "Self-Report," not "Self-report")
Capitalize words of four letters or more

When to Use Title Case:

Titles of articles, books, reports, and other works appearing in text
In the title of your own paper and of named sections and subsections within it
Data analyses section titles
Titles of periodicals
Table titles (italicized)
Figure titles (italicized), axis labels, and legends

Sentence Case:

Lowercase most words in the title or heading
Capitalize only the following words:
- The first word of the title or heading
- The first word of a subtitle
- The first word after a colon, em dash, or end punctuation in a heading
- Nouns followed by numerals or letters
- Proper nouns

When to Use Sentence Case:

Titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and other works in reference list entries
Table column headings, entries, and notes
Figure notes
Note words in the image of a figure may be in either title case or sentence case, following the same guidelines for capitalization as used in the text.

Titles of Tests and Measures

Capitalization Rules for Tests and Measures

Capitalize titles of published and unpublished tests and measures, and their subscales.
Do not capitalize "test" or "scale" unless part of title.
See Section 1.11 for use of italics with test and measure titles.

Examples of Test and Measure Titles

Thematic Apperception Test
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2)
MMPI–2 Depression scale
Stroop Color–Word Interference Test
the authors' Mood Affective Checklist
SF–36 Physical Functioning scale

Capitalization Rules for Numerals and Letters

Capitalize nouns followed by numerals or letters denoting a specific place in a series.

Examples of Capitalized Numerals and Letters

Figure 3
Table 1, Row 2, Column 6
Appendix B
Research Question 3
Footnote 2
Days 7–9
Trials 5 and 6
Part 4
Grant AG11214
Chapter 8

Exceptions to Capitalization Rules for Numerals and Letters

Do not capitalize "numerals" or "letters" when referring to them as themselves.
Do not capitalize the numeral 7 or letter a.
Do not capitalize nouns that precede variables (unless part of title).

Examples of Non-Capitalized Numerals and Letters

a vocabulary test
Stroop-like color test
genes and proteins: nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1

Capitalization Rules for Conditions or Groups in an Experiment

Do not capitalize names of conditions or groups in an experiment.

Examples of Non-Capitalized Conditions or Groups

experimental and control groups
participants were assigned to information and no-information conditions

Capitalization Rules for Factors, Variables, and Effects

Capitalize names of derived variables within a factor or principal components analysis.
Do not capitalize effects or variables unless they appear with multiplication signs.

Examples of Capitalized Derived Variables

Big Five personality factors: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, and Neuroticism
Mealtime Behavior (Factor 4)

Exceptions to Capitalization Rules for Factors, Variables, and Effects

Do not capitalize effects or variables unless they appear with multiplication signs.
Be careful not to confuse "factor" with "effect" or "variable."

Examples of Non-Capitalized Effects or Variables

small age effect
sex, age, and weight variables
design (methods) and item types (2)

Use of Italics

Mindfulness

Defined as "act of noticing new pings" (Pagnini et al., 2016, p. 91)
Promotes flexible responding to environmental demands
Use italics for terms or phrases only once, when important

APA Style Guidelines

Italicize titles of books, reports, webpages, and stand-alone works
Plurality: multiple copies of the same item
Reverse italicization: words within already italicized text are in standard type

Terms and Definitions

Mindfulness: process of noticing new things, flexible responding
Cultural Diversity: broad term for ethnic minority psychology
Periodical volume numbers in reference lists
Neuropsychology journal example: Neuropsychology, 30(5), 525–531
Scales: rated using a Likert scale (1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree)
Anchors of a scale: range from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent)
Gene symbols, gene proteins (see Section .1)
NR3C1

APA Style Guidelines (continued)

Do not italicize titles of book series, punctuation marks after an italicized word or phrase, or words, phrases, and abbreviations of foreign origin that appear in a dictionary for the language being used
Use reverse italics when words that would normally be italicized appear within already italicized text
Italicize chemical terms (NaCl, LSD), trigonometric terms (sin, tan, log), nonstatistical subscripts to statistical symbols or mathematical expressions (F max, S|A|S|B)
Use reverse italics for titles of books within already italicized titles in the text and reference list entries.

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

Shortened form of word or phrase
Sparse use to maximize clarity
Consider readers' familiarity
Effective for long, technical terms
Avoid abbreviating experimental group names
Do not use "S," "E," and "O" for subjects, experimenters, observers
Overuse can confuse readers

Use of Abbreviations

Use when conventional and space is saved
Examples: L (large), S (small)
Avoid in unfamiliar contexts or unnecessary cases
Do not alternate between writing out and abbreviating

Definition of Abbreviations

No need to define dictionary terms or measurement, time, Latin, or statistical abbreviations
Define all other abbreviations in text
Use only the abbreviation after definition
Place definition before first use in heading if not previously defined
Use parentheses for first use in text
Use square brackets for first use in parenthetical text

Definition in Tables and Figures

Define abbreviations used in tables and figures
Include definition within table or figure, or in note/legend
Repeat definition if used in multiple tables or figures
Do not define standard units of measurement or statistics.

Format of Abbreviations

Abbreviations and Units of Measurement Guidelines

Abbreviation Pluralization

Add "s" alone for most abbreviations and symbols (e.g., IQs, Ms, ps)
Do not add "s" to reference abbreviation for page (p.) or units of measurement
Use "pp." instead of "2p." for pages when pluralizing

Abbreviations at the Beginning of a Sentence

Never begin a sentence with a lowercase abbreviation or standalone symbol
Begin with symbols connected to words only if necessary

Units of Measurement

Use metric units in APA journals; convert nonmetric units to metric equivalents and report both
Write out full names for units not accompanied by numeric values, use abbreviations for those that are
Do not define or spell out unit of measurement abbreviations

Capitalization and Spelling

Lowercase letters for symbols (e.g., kg), except for exceptions:
- Symbols derived from a person's name (Gy)
- Prefixes that represent powers of ten (exa, peta, tera, giga, mega)
Use "L" for liter when it stands alone; use lowercase "l" for fractions
Do not use periods after symbols except at the end of a sentence or for the abbreviation "in."
Use a space between symbol and number except for angle measurements (e.g., 45 degrees)

Repeated Units of Measurement

Do not repeat abbreviated units of measurement when expressing multiple amounts

Compound Units

Use a centered dot to represent multiplication between symbols in compound terms, e.g., Pascal second (Pa.s)

Time Abbreviations

Abbreviation Guidelines

Time Abbreviations

Do not abbreviate "day," "week," "month," "year"
Abbreviate "hour," "minute," "second," "millisecond," "nanosecond"
See table for examples

Latin Abbreviations

Use in parenthetical material
Translate in narrative
Exceptions: "cf.," "e.g.," "i.e.," "vs."
Use "et al." for "and others"

Chemical Compound Abbreviations

Use common or chemical name
Provide chemical name in parentheses on first mention
Avoid chemical formulas
Abbreviate long names of organic compounds if listed as term
Specify concentration ratio and salt form for precise reporting

Routes of Administration

Abbreviate route when paired with number-and-unit combination
Do not use periods with abbreviations for routes

Gene and Protein Name Abbreviations

Use standard gene names from gene databases
Gene names are organism-specific
Use appropriate database
Select one presentation and use consistently
Distinguish between gene and protein when discussing
Do not italicize gene names written out in full and gene proteins, but do italicize gene symbols.

Numbers

Guidelines for Using Numbers in Writing

Numbers Expressed in Numerals

Use numerals for numbers 1 and above throughout the paper
Use both cardinal and ordinal numbers
Use numerals for numbers that precede units of measurement, statistical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, and quartiles/percentiles
Use numerals to express time, dates, ages, scores, points on a scale, exact sums of money, and specific places in a numbered series or parts of books and tables

Exceptions for Numbers Expressed in Words

Use words for numbers zero through nine (except as described in Sections 2 and 4)
Use words for any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading
Use words for common fractions, universally accepted usage, Twelve Apostles, Five Pillars of Islam

Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers

Use a combination of numerals and words for back-to-back numerical modifiers
If it makes the text more difficult for readers, consider rewording the sentence

Ordinal Numbers

Use ordinal numbers for second-order factors, grades, items in trials/tests, groups
Use cardinal base for ordinal numbers (two orders, four grades, ten trials, etc.)
Consistent presentation of superscript or no superscript for suffixes of ordinal numbers

Decimal Fractions

Use a zero before the decimal point for numbers less than 1 when statistic can exceed 1
Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when statistic cannot be greater than 1
Report correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics to two decimals
Report means and standard deviations to one decimal place (for group measures)
Exact p values to two or three decimal places, less than .1 reported as p > .1

Roman Numerals

Use Roman numerals for established terminology
Use Arabic numerals for routine seriation

Commas in Numbers

Use commas between groups of three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more
Some exceptions include page numbers, binary digits, serial numbers, degrees of temperature, acoustic frequency designations, and degrees of freedom.

Plurals of Numbers

Plurals of Numbers

To form plurals of numbers: add "s" or "es" alone, no apostrophe.

APA Style for Statistical and Mathematical Copy

General Guidelines

Reflects agreed standards in field and publication requirements
Does not provide guidance on choosing stats, conducting analysis, interpreting results

Selecting Effective Presentation

Present statistical and mathematical copy as text, tables, figures
Three or fewer numbers: sentence
Four to 2: table
More than 2: figure

References for Statistics

No reference for common stats (e.g., Cohen's d)
Less common, unconventional/controversial use or focus of paper

Formulas

Provide formula when new, rare, essential to paper

Statistics in Text

Inferential statistics: include sufficient information
Data for confirmation and construction of estimates
Multilevel data: present summary stats for each level
Means (with standard deviations): mention table and emphasize data
Confidence intervals: state level and format: 95 CI LL, UL.

APA Style Specifics

F ratios: include degrees of freedom and p value
t values: include degrees of freedom, p value, effect size, confidence interval
Hierarchical regression stats: include R2, degrees of freedom, p value, confidence interval.

Statistical Symbols and Abbreviations

Statistical Symbols and Abbreviations

Table of Common Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols:

Abbreviation	Unit of measurement
a	in item response theory, the slope parameter
AIC	Akaike information criterion
ANCOVA	analysis of covariance
ANOVA	analysis of variance
AVE	average value explained
b, bi	in regression and multiple regression analyses, estimated values of raw (unstandardized) regression coefficients or difficulty-severity parameter in item response theory
b, bi	estimated values of standardized regression coefficients in regression and multiple regression analyses
BIC, aBIC	Bayesian information criterion, sample-size-adjusted Bayesian information criterion
CAT	computerized adaptive testing
CDF	cumulative distribution function
CFA	confirmatory factor analysis
CFI	comparative fit index
CI	confidence interval
d	Cohen's measure of sample effect size for comparing two sample means, discriminability in signal detection theory
df	degrees of freedom
DIF	differential item functioning
EFA	exploratory factor analysis
EM	expectation maximization
ES	effect size
f	frequency
fe	expected frequency
fo	observed frequency
F	F distribution - Fisher's F ratio
F(1, 2)	F with 1 and 2 degrees of freedom
F crit	critical value for statistical significance in an F test
F max	Hartley's test of homogeneity of variance
FDR	false discovery rate
FIML	full information maximum likelihood
g	Hedges's measure of effect size
GFI	goodness-of-fit index
GLM	generalized linear model
GLS	generalized least squares
H0	null hypothesis, hypothesis under test
H1 (or Ha)	alternative hypothesis
HLM	hierarchical linear model(ing)
HSD	Tukey's honestly significant difference
IRT	item response theory
---	---
k	coefficient of alienation, number of studies in a meta-analysis, or number of levels in an experimental design/individual study
k2	coefficient of nondetermination
KR20	Kuder–Richardson reliability index
LGC	latent growth curve
LL	lower limit (as of a CI)
LR	likelihood ratio
LSD	least significant difference
M (or μ)	sample mean, arithmetic average
MANOVA	multivariate analysis of variance
MANCOVA	multivariate analysis of covariance
MCMC	Markov chain Monte Carlo
Mdn	median
MLE	maximum likelihood estimator, maximum likelihood estimate
MLM	multilevel model(ing)
MS	mean square
MSE	mean square error
n	number of cases (generally in a subsample)
N	total number of cases
NFI, NNFI	normed fit index, nonnormed fit index
ns	not statistically significant
OLS	ordinary least squares
OR	odds ratio
p	probability, probability of a success in a binary trial
p rep	probability a replication would give a result with the same sign as the original result
PDF	probability density function
q	probability of a failure in a binary trial (1-p)
Q	test of homogeneity of effect sizes
r	estimate of the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, or biserial correlation, point biserial correlation, or Spearman rank-order correlation
rab.c	partial correlation of a and b with the effect of c removed
ra(b.c)	partial (or semipartial) correlation of a and b with the effect of c removed from b
r2	coefficient of determination, measure of strength of relationship, estimate of the Pearson product–moment correlation squared
---	---
rb	biserial correlation
rpb	point biserial correlation
rs	Spearman rank-order correlation
R	multiple correlation
R2	multiple correlation squared, measure of strength of association
RMSEA	root-mean-square error of approximation
SE	standard error
SEM	standard error of measurement, standard error of the mean, or structural equation modeling
S	sample variance–covariance matrix
s2	sample variance (unbiased estimator) – denominator n-1, or sample variance (biased estimator) – denominator n
SD	standard deviation
SEM	standard error of measurement
SEM	structural equation modeling
SRMR	standardized root-mean-square residual
SS	sum of squares
t	Student's t distribution, a statistical test based on the Student t distribution, or sample value of the t-test statistic
T2	Hotelling's multivariate test for the equality of the mean vector in two multi-variate populations
T k	generic effect-size estimate
TLI	Tucker–Lewis index
U	Mann–Whitney test statistic
UL	upper limit (as of a CI)
V	Pillai–Bartlett multivariate trace criterion, or Cramér's measure of association in contingency tables
w k	fixed-effects weights, random-effects weights
W	Kendall's coefficient of concordance and its estimate
WLS	weighted least squares
α (alpha)	in statistical hypothesis testing, the probability of making a Type I error, Cronbach's index of internal consistency (a form of reliability)
β (beta)	in statistical hypothesis testing, the probability of making a Type II error (1–denotes statistical power), population values of regression coefficients with appropriate subscripts as needed
Β (capital beta)	in SEM, matrix of regression coefficients among dependent constructs
Γ (capital gamma)	Goodman–Kruskal's index of relationship, matrix of regression coefficients between independent and dependent constructs in SEM
δ (delta)	population value of Cohen's effect size, noncentrality parameter in hypothesis testing, noncentral distributions
Δ (capital delta)	increment of change
2 (epsilon-squared)	measure of strength of relationship in analysis of variance
2 (eta-squared)	measure of strength of relationship
κ (kappa)	Cohen's measure of agreement corrected for chance agreement
λ (lambda)	element of a factor loading matrix, Goodman–Kruskal measure of predictability
Λ (capital lambda)	Wilks's multivariate test criterion, matrix of factor loadings in SEM
μ (mu)	population mean, expected value
ν (nu)	degrees of freedom
ρ (rho)	population product–moment correlation, population intraclass correlation
I (ρI)	population intraclass correlation
σ (sigma)	population standard deviation
2 (sigma-squared)	population variance
Σ (capital sigma)	population variance–covariance matrix
τ (tau)	Kendall's rank-order correlation coefficient, Hotelling's multivariate trace criterion
φ (phi)	standard normal probability density function
Φ (capital phi)	measure of association in contingency tables, standard normal cumulative distribution function, matrix of covariances among independent constructs in SEM.

Mathematical symbols

Mathematical Notation

Symbols:

|a|: absolute value of a
(capital sigma): summation
est(): estimator or estimate of a parameter

Abbreviations vs. Symbols:

Use term when referring to concept, symbol when specifying numeric value
Consistent use of notation system

Statistics:

Population parameters: represented by Greek letters (ρ)
Estimators: represented by italicized Latin letters (r)
Test statistics: represented by italicized Latin or Greek letters (t, F, α)
Number of subjects: N (total sample), n (subsample)
Percentage and currency: % and currency symbols only with numeral

Type Styles:

Standard (roman): for identifiers and non-variables
Bold: for vectors and matrices
Italic: for all other statistical symbols

Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation:

Space symbols as you would words
Use a space for minus sign indicating subtraction
Align signs and symbols carefully
Subscripts and superscripts stacked in APA journals unless specified otherwise.

Notes:

Symbol form for estimators and test statistics only when reporting numerical estimates
Mixing notation systems within a paper should be avoided
Prepare mathematical copy carefully to avoid errors.

Presentation of Equations

Equations in Text

Place short equations in line of text (e.g., a / b)
Use slash for fractions in line of text
Use parentheses, square brackets, and braces for clarity
- Parentheses first
- Square brackets second
- Braces last
Equations should not project above or below line
Complex equations should be displayed (see .47)

Displayed Equations

Display simple equations if numbered for reference
Display all complex equations
Number displayed equations consecutively, near right margin of page
Refer to equations as "Equation" or "the third equation," not "Eq."

Preparing Statistical and Mathematical Copy for Publication

Equations should be in typed form when possible
Use images for characters unproduceable by word-processing program
Type fences, letters, punctuation, subscripts, superscripts, etc. exactly as desired
Prepare equations as displayed (see .47) or in line with text.

Lists

Use of Lists in Writing

Headings alert readers to the order of ideas in a paper
Seriation (lists) help understand related key points within a sentence or paragraph

Serial Comma and Semicolon

In a series, use serial comma before final item if list items are not already enclosed in commas
Use semicolons instead of commas between items if an item contains commas

Lettered Lists

Identify elements in a complex list with lowercase letters in parentheses for clarity
Commas or semicolons between items as appropriate

Numbered Lists

Display complete sentences or paragraphs in a series
Capitalize first word after number and end each sentence with punctuation

Bulleted Lists

Identify items in a series without implying ordinality
Use bullets instead of numbers for phrases or fragments

Items that are Complete Sentences

Begin each bullet with capital letter and end it with a period

Items that are Phrases

Begin bulleted items with lowercase letter (except proper nouns)
Two options: no punctuation after bullets or punctuate as though bullets were not there

Items that Contain Both Phrases and Sentences

Use bold for word or phrase at beginning of bullet, followed by colon
If what follows colon is a sentence fragment, lowercase first word after colon
Capitalize first word after colon and end sentence with punctuation if it's a complete sentence.

TABLES AND FIGURES

Tables and Figures

Definition and Importance

Present large amounts of information efficiently
Make data more comprehensible
Facilitate understanding of work
Should not be used for decoration
Each table and figure should serve a purpose

General Guidelines

Communicate findings clearly
Design with readers in mind
Prepare with same care as text
Label all elements
Place items for comparison next to each other
Use sans serif fonts
Avoid decorative flourishes

Graphical versus Textual Presentation

Be selective with number of tables and figures
Tables/figures should augment or supplement text
Single statistical significance tests or group means can be presented in text
Tables are effective for multiple statistical tests or descriptive statistics
Combine smaller tables/figures into one larger one if applicable

Components of a Theoretical Model

Figures helpful for summarizing models, but not necessarily necessary
Redundant tables or figures with text may be unnecessary

Formatting Tables and Figures

Have same structure: number, title, body (tables), image (figures), notes as needed
Use tables function in word processing programs or adjust formatting if copying from other programs
Use high resolution formats for publication (TIFF, EPS)
Check author guidelines for specifications.

Referring to Tables and Figures in the Text

Referencing Tables and Figures

Refer to tables and figures by number, not page location (Sections 7.1, 7.24)
Describe content of table or figure in text when referencing
Avoid using phrases like "the table above" or "the figure on page 2"
Tables and figures placement determined during typesetting
Beneficial for readers using assistive technologies (Section 2.14)

Placement of Tables and Figures

Two options: separate pages after reference list, integrated within text
Follow journal publisher or assignment requirements
Dissertations/theses may have distinct specifications
Align with left margin, place after full paragraph
Add blank line between text and table/figure for separation
Place small tables/figures at beginning or end of page
Non-essential tables/figures in appendices or supplemental materials (Sections 2.14, 2.15)

Reprinting or Adapting Tables and Figures

Include copyright attribution for reprinted or adapted material (Table 7.14, Figures 7., 7.14, 7.21)
Obtain permission from copyright holder when necessary (Sections 12.14 to 12.1)

Tables

Principles of Table Construction

Tables should be integral and concise
Conciseness applies to main text and appendices
Tables should clearly communicate data meaning
Logical and easily grasped layout
Comparable entries next to each other
Different indices in different rows or columns
Variable and condition labels near values
Effective layout examples in Section 7.21

Table Components

Component	Description
Number	Arabic numerals above table in bold
Title	Brief, clear, explanatory title below table in italic title case
Headings	Column headings, stub heading for leftmost column, column spanners, decked heads, table spanners
Body	Rows and columns containing primary data
Notes	General, specific, or probability notes below table as needed

Table Numbering

Assign Arabic numerals to tables in order of first mention in text
Write "Table" before number

Table Titles

Brief and clear, data content should be inferable from title
Use italic title case below table number
Avoid overly general or detailed titles
Abbreviations may be explained in title or general note but not specific notes

Example of a Prototypical Table

Content	Page Number
Table Numbers
Table title: Children With and Without Proof of Parental Citizenship
Grades	Girls
	Without Wave
	280
	290
Table body: rows and columns containing primary data for the table
Notes: Explanation of elements of the table, general note first, subsequent specific notes follow the same paragraph. See Section 7.21 for sample tables.

Table Headings

Table Design Guidelines

Table Headings and Columns

Table Headings: establish organization, identify content of columns
Column Headings: describe entries below, apply to single column
Stub Column: leftmost column, lists major independent variables
Indentation: for subordination within stub column
Heading Levels: singular or plural, avoid more than 2 levels of decked heads
Table Spanners: headings covering multiple columns, allow further divisions

Table Body

Organizes information in cells
Formats: single-spaced, one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced
Entries: numbers, words, or a mix
Centered or aligned left for readability
Use hanging indent for long entries

Table Formatting

Sentence case for headings, center all table headings above columns
Numbers expressed to appropriate decimal places
Empty cells: leave blank or use table notes
Concise presentation: omit redundant columns
Citations in tables: use ampersand (&) for "and" and follow format guidelines.

Table Notes

Table Notes

Three Kinds of Notes

General notes: qualify or explain table as a whole, include acknowledgments (Note), abbreviations, symbols, special formatting
Specific notes: refer to particular column, row, or cell (superscript lowercase letters)
Probability notes: describe use of asterisks and other symbols to indicate p values

General Note

Designated by "Note" followed by a period
Qualifies or explains table as a whole
Includes acknowledgments, abbreviations, symbols, special formatting

Specific Note

Indicated by superscript lowercase letters (e.g., a, b)
Refer to particular column, row, or cell
Order from left to right and top to bottom, starting at top left with "a"

Probability Note

Describes use of asterisks and other symbols for p values
Use "p " notation in tables
Indicate significance levels (e.g., p .05)
Distinguish between one-tailed and two-tailed tests with different symbols

Formatting of Notes

Begin each kind on new line below table body
General note first, specific notes under it, probability note last
Double-space all notes, align flush left

Usage of Notes to Eliminate Repetition

Use notes to eliminate repetition from table body
Place probability values or subsample sizes in a column instead of many notes if numerous
Eliminate columns with few entries and add note instead (partial tables example provided)

Standard Abbreviations in Tables and Figures

Use standard abbreviations for statistics, Greek letters, units of measurement without definition
Define other abbreviations in table title, body, or note
Define abbreviations in order they appear in the table starting at top left.

Confidence Intervals in Tables

Confidence Intervals in Tables

Point estimates should be accompanied by confidence intervals
Use square brackets or separate columns in tables
State confidence level (e.g., 95 or 99)
Same confidence level throughout paper

Table Design

Table Borders and Shading

Limit use of borders and lines
Use top, bottom, and side borders for clarity
Avoid vertical borders and cell borders
Use white space instead of shading
Explain purpose of shading in note if necessary

Long or Wide Tables

Repeat heading row on each subsequent page
Use automated tools to format long tables
Landscape orientation for wide tables
Stub column for continuation of table

Relation Between Tables

Combine tables with repeated data
Be consistent in presentation
Same terminology and formatting
Number separate tables

Table Checklist

Ensures effective presentation and conformity to style guidelines

Sample Tables

Use standard forms when possible
Judicious use of nonstandard forms for specific points or relationships
Clear labeling for nonstandard forms.

Table Checklist

Guidelines for Preparing Tables for Academic Papers

Table Checklist

Necessity of the table
Placement: print, electronic versions, or supplemental materials
Consistency in presentation among tables in the paper
Consecutive numbering with Arabic numerals
Bold and flush left table number
Called out or referred to in text
Brief, explanatory title
Italic title case and flush left
Column headings: centered, explained abbreviations, and consistent formatting
Notes: double-spaced, flush left, same font as text
Correctly applied borders and line spacing

Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants (Table 7.2)

Reporting demographic data
Generalizability of results

Properties of Study Variables (Table 7.3)

Description of study variables
Means, standard deviations
Psychometric information

Meta-Analysis Summary (Table 7.4)

Quality of studies in meta-analysis
Relevant information for readers

Summary of Complex Experimental Design (Table 7.5)

Clear presentation of complex experimental designs

Descriptive Statistics for Study Measures (Table 7.6)

Providing descriptive statistics
Depending on nature and purpose of analyses

Chi-Square Results (Table 7.7)

Individual chi-square tests reported in text
Multiple chi-square tests summarized in tables

T-Test Results (Table 7.8)

One t-test: results in text
Multiple t-tests: results in table

A priori or Post hoc Comparisons (Table 7.9)

Comparing specific group means
Different methods for comparisons

Correlations (Tables 7.10 - 7.11)

Presentation of correlations between study variables

Analysis of Variance (Tables 7.12 - 7.13)

Single and multiple ANOVA results

Factor Analysis (Table 7.14)

Factor coefficients or loadings presentation

Multiple Regression (Tables 7.15 - 7.18)

Multiple regression results presentation

Model Comparisons (Tables 7.19 - 7.21)

Comparing different models of data

Qualitative Tables (Tables 7.22 - 7.23)

Presentation of qualitative data in tabular form

Mixed Methods Tables (Table 7.24)

Procedures or findings of mixed methods research presentation

Sample Tables

Sample Demographic Characteristics

Participants' age: 39.5 (SD 10.1) years old
Three conditions: Guided self-help, unguided self-help, wait-list control

Characteristics	Guided self-help	Unguided self-help	Wait-list control	Full sample
Gender	Female: 45.3%	Male: 54.7%	N/A	N/A
Marital status	Single: 27.3%	Married/partnered: 67.3%	Divorced/widowed: N/A	Other: percent
Children	Yes: 49.3%	Yes: 66.0%	N/A	N/A
Highest educational level	Middle school	High school	University	Graduate degree
Employment status	Unemployed: N/A	Student: 12.0%	Employed: 66.0%	Self-employed: 14.0%
Previous psychological treatment	Yes: 39.3%	N/A	N/A	N/A
Previous psychotropic medication	Yes: 20.0%	N/A	N/A	N/A

Identity, Self-Directedness, Empathy, and Intimacy Scales

Developed Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire (DLOPFQ) with four scales: Identity, Self-Directedness, Empathy, and Intimacy.
Each scale has subscales for work and social domains.

Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis

Study	Sample
Barch et al (2001)	14 with first-episode schizophrenia
Burch et al (2008)	57 with chronic schizophrenia
Becker (2012)	49 with chronic schizophrenia
Braver et al	16 with first-episode schizophrenia
Chun et al (2011)	41 with chronic schizophrenia
Cohen et al (1999)	53 with chronic schizophrenia
Delawalla (2003)	17 with chronic schizophrenia
Mac Donald Larter	17 healthy control participants
Cowards Poppe et al. (2016)	47 with chronic schizophrenia
Gold et al Reilly et al (2017)	402 with chronic schizophrenia
Holmes	210 healthy participants
Sheffield et al (2014)	104 with chronic schizophrenia
Jones et al (2014)	33 with chronic schizophrenia
Zhang et al (2015)	339 with chronic schizophrenia

Experimental Design

Four experiments with various conditions: Compound A - Y, A - BY, Element A - Y, and Control.
Different stimuli used, including tone, clicker, steady light, flashing light, and shock.
Counterbalanced design for A, B, Y, and shock.

BAS, BDI, ASRM, and M-SRM Scales

BAS (Behavioral Approach System) T scale: 46.17 (2.87) for high BAS group, 37.99 (1.32) for moderate BAS group.
Becks Depression Inventory (BDI): 7.11 (6.50) for high BAS group, 6.18 (6.09) for moderate BAS group.
Activation and Suppression in Response to Emotion (ASRM) scale: 6.46 (4.01) for high BAS group, 5.63 (3.69) for moderate BAS group.
Self-Reported Motivation (M-SRM) scale: 11.05 (3.36) for high BAS group, 11.76 (2.75) for moderate BAS group.

BAS - Behavioral Activation System

Behavioral Activation System (BAS)

Behavioral Activation System scales: BAS-T, SRS, BDI, ASRM, M-SRM

Behavioral Activation System Scales Breakdown

BAS-T: Total scores from Behavioral Activation System
SRS: Sensitivity from Sensitivity-Punishment and Sensitivity-Reward Questionnaire
BDI: Beck Depression Inventory scores
ASRM: Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale scores
M-SRM: Modified Social Rhythm Metric Regularity scores

Study Analysis

Data from Media, Family, Friends reports, and self-reported behaviors
Logistic function fit to target the asymptotic degree of looking at the time course
Comparison of Professor Type and End/Start of Semester

Descriptive Statistics and Study Variables

Internal-External status, Manager job performance, Starting salary, Subsequent promotion, Organizational tenure, Unit service performance, Unit financial performance, Grade point average, Academic self-concept, Teacher trust, Age

Measurement

Urban, Rural

Analysis

Self-esteem, Social support, Cognitive appraisals (Threat, Challenge, Self-efficacy)

Stress Management Training (SMT)

Psychological strain, Emotional exhaustion, Depersonalization at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3

Factor Analysis of the Parental Care Attitude Test (PCAT)

Tenderness Positive making silly faces, Favor loadings
Think that kids are annoying: reverse-scored items, Can't stand how children whine all the time, When I hear a child crying, Don't like being around babies, If I could, I'd eat children (reverse-scored), Protection threat to child: I would show danger to child, I would use any means necessary to protect child, I would feel punish someone who tried to harm a child, I would sooner be hungry than see a child go without food.

Note:

Introduction

Note on variables: Angry behavior, husband, wife, actor, partner, confidence interval, study year, self-report, test, published.

Variables and Results Actor and Partner Effects on Angry Behavior

Variables: Actor (husband), Partner (wife)
Angry behavior: 40.20 (actor), 30.87, 39.43, 38.16, 27.86, 26.53, 32.01, 27.16, 24.72, 23.48, 23.91, 24.47
Partner: 30.87, 39.43, 38.16, 27.86, 26.53, 32.01, 27.16, 24.72, 23.48, 23.91, 24.47
Confidence interval (CI) for each variable and partner.

Moderator Analysis

Variables: Types of measurement, study year
Fixed Effects: Intercept, creativity measurement, academic achievement measurement, Study Year.
Results for each variable.

Random Effects

Within-study variance, Between-study variance.

Model Comparison

Simplex lagged model, Simplex model, Latent growth model, Modified latent change model.
Value, df, p, RMSEA value, RMSEA 95% CI, RMSEA p, AIC, BIC, AIC difference, BIC difference for each model.

Additional Notes

Number of studies: 120, number of effects: 782, total N: 52,578.
Self-report, test, 1 = grade point average, grand centered, yes, test, ves.
Study year was a variable.
familismo: the collective importance of family unity that emphasizes interdependence and solidarity.
Mexican American marginalization (Mex Am margin).
p .05, p .01, p .001.

Note.

Introduction

Note on AIC and BIC differences in relation to simplex lagged model
Explanation of RMSEA, CI, AIC, and BIC

Model Comparison

Model	Parameter	Model 1 (Intercept)	Model 2 (Intercept)	Differences
Effect	Parameter
Intercept	Fixed effects	3.60 (0.06)	3.34 (0.12)	-0.26
Linear change	Posttest	0.26 (0.17)	0.16 (0.15)	-0.10
Prosocial behavior		0.03 (0.021)	0.002 (0.051)	-0.028
Self-focused behavior		0.06	0.05	-0.01
Quadratic rate of change	Time	0.02 (0.01)	0.01	-0.01
Prosocial behavior		0.02	0.02	0
Self-focused behavior		0.01	0.02	-0.01
Variance component	Random effects	Model 1	Model 2	Differences
Level 1		0.52	0.51	0.01
Level 2	1.31	1.02	0.31	-0.31

Model Comparison (Goodness of Fit)

Model	Deviance	ER (Expected)	Model Chi-square	df	NFI	CFI	RMSEA
A One-intelligence model	10,994.664	-	10,994.664	1539	.296	.326	.115
B Two-intelligences model	10,091.236	-	10,091.236	1538	.354	.390	.109
C Three-intelligences model	8,640.066	-	8,640.066	1536	.447	.494	.100

Structural Equation Modeling and Analysis

Explanation of structural equation modeling
Description of models A, B, and C
Differences between models: number of factors and items loaded onto each factor.

Master Narrative Voices

Master Narrative Voice	Discourse and Dimension	Example Quote
Struggle and success	Self-actualization as a member of larger gay community	"My path of gayness ... going from denial to saying, well, this is it, and then the process of coming out..."
Struggle and success	Maintaining healthy sexual identity	"When I'm, like, thinking of criticisms of more mainstream gay culture, I try to ... make sure it's coming from an appropriate place..."
Emancipation	Open exploration of individually fluid sexual self	"For heterosexuals the man penetrates the woman, whereas with gay people, I feel like there is this potential for really playing around with that model a lot..."
Emancipation	Questioning discrete, monolithic categories of sexual identity	"LGBTQI, you know, and added on so many letters. It does start to raise the question about what the terms mean..."

Reason for Interest

Reason for Interest	Example Quote	Frequency (n) and Percentage
Royal family and its history	"I love all things British. I studied abroad in the U.K."	16 (35.6)
Fashion and pop culture	"When big pop culture things happen, I tend to want to watch so I'm in on it."	13 (28.9)
Fairy tales and love stories	"I watched his mom and dad get married, watched him grow up. Plus I love a fairy tale that comes true."	11 (24.4)
To pass time it was on TV	"I was at the airport and it was broadcasting on TV while I was waiting for my flight."	5 (11.1)

Quantitative Results

Comparison of participants' selection of cards about nuclear power vs climate change

Qualitative Results

Analysis of interviews with students regarding their card selections between the two topics

Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Combination of quantitative data (card selections) and qualitative data (interviews) for comprehensive understanding.

Figures

Guidelines for Creating Effective Figures in APA Style

Principles of Figure Construction

All graphical displays other than tables considered figures
Add substantial value to readers' understanding
Consider best way to communicate information (table vs figure)
Follow principles: simplicity, clarity, continuity, information value

Characteristics of a Good Figure

Augments text, conveys essential information
Omits visually distracting detail
Easy to read and understand
Well-planned and prepared
Consistent with similar figures in the article

Checklist for Creating Effective Figures

Clear images, smooth and sharp lines
Simple and legible font
Provide units of measurement and clear labels
Distinguish between error bars and confidence intervals
- Specify size of interval or label for error
Sufficient information in legend or note for understanding
Easy differentiation of symbols
Large enough for discernible elements

Additional Considerations

Use color, photographic images, or cropping appropriately
Check figures carefully for adherence to guidelines.

Figure Components

Components of Figure and Table

Figure:

Number: appears above figure in bold
Title: one double-spaced line below figure number in italic title case
Image: chart, graph, photograph, drawing or other illustration
Legend: explains symbols used in figure image (within borders)
Notes: three types: general, specific, and probability (below figure)

Table:

Number: all figures that are part of main text numbered using Arabic numerals
Content: includes information needed to understand table
- Definitions of abbreviations
- Copyright attribution for adapted table
General note: appears above specific notes in separate paragraph
Specific notes: appear in same paragraph below general note
Probability notes: appear in separate paragraph below specific notes.

Writing Figure and Table Numbers

Write "Figure" and number in bold and flush left
Figures that appear in appendices follow different numbering scheme (Section 2.14)

Figure Titles

Creating Effective Figures

Figure Titles

Give clear and explanatory titles to figures
Use title case, double-space title from figure number
Avoid overly general or overly detailed titles (Section 7.11)

Figure Images

Save images in sufficient resolution for clear printing or viewing (Section 7.4)
Attend to size and proportion of elements
Use simple sans serif font (e.g., Arial, Calibri, Lucida Sans Unicode)
Ensure legibility and consistency in font size and weight
Use distinct shading for different elements or use patterns
Limit the number of different shadings in a single graphic
Ensure that overlapping information can be distinguished from shading
Use color only when necessary for understanding (Section 7.13)
Provide adequate contrast for readers with color vision deficiencies (WCAG 2. AA or later)
Use patterns and lines to differentiate elements if many colors are used
Avoid gridlines unless they aid understanding
Avoid 3D effects for decoration only

Creating Panels

Divide figures into panels or create separate figures based on the nature of information being presented
Panels help readers compare information but increase density on the page.

Figure Construction

Communication in Figure Construction

Prioritize clear communication
Labeling panels optional, use position or capital letters (e.g., Panel A)
Include figure general note to explain each panel

Citations in Figures

Follow Section .11 format for citations
Use ampersand (&) for "and" in citations

Figure Legends

Explain symbols, line styles, shading or pattern variants
Capitalize words using title case
Place within or below image to minimize empty space

Figure Notes

General notes: explain units, symbols, abbreviations not in legend
Match symbols, abbreviations, terminology between figure, text, and other figures
Explain shading, color, design elements with meaning
Individual descriptions for multipanel figures
Report exact p values or mark statistically significant values
Position superscripts for specific notes near identified elements

Relation Between Figures

Similar figures or figures of equal importance should be of same size and scale
Combine figures to facilitate comparisons between content (e.g., combine line graphs, multiple figures into one with multiple panels)

Photographs

Photographs as Figures:

Special considerations for submission of photographs
File type, color mode, resolution, contrast, and lighting
Cropping and indication of alterations
Ethical considerations against intentional misrepresentation

Considerations for Electrophysiological, Radiological, Genetic, and Other Biological Data:

Accurately represent data
Proper labeling and clear indication of processing or enhancement
Clarity of representation, necessity for inclusion, and consistency
Color requirement for interpretability (Section 7.2)
Complex graphs and images as supplemental materials

Electrophysiological Data:

Clear labeling, including direction of negativity and scale of response
Necessary information accompanying the figure

Radiological Imaging Data:

Proper labeling and interpretation assistance in figure notes
Hemisphere identification for axial, coronal, and sagittal slices
Indication of coordinate space
Use of cutaway views or surface-rendered images
Consistent use of color and specification of color scale mapping

Materials Information:

Clear labeling and inclusion of necessary information (scale bars, staining)

Genetic Data:

Clear labeling and presentation of location, distance, markers, and identification methods
Careful editing for improved communicative value

Figure Checklist:

Necessity of figure
Acceptable file format and high resolution
Consistent size and scale across figures
Consecutive numbering with Arabic numerals in text order
Bold, flush left figure numbers
All figures called out or referred to in the text
Brief but explanatory figure titles in italic title case and flush left.

Sample Figures

Introduction

Discussion on different types of figures used in research
Distinctions between types not clear, refer to published articles for guidance

Common Types of Figures

Graphs

Display relationship between two quantitative indices or a continuous variable with groups (Figure 7.2, 7.7)
Bar graphs, line graphs (Figure 7.2)
Labeling, formatting guidelines (Font size, sans serif, etc.)
Copyright and permission requirements

Charts

Display nonquantitative information (Figure 7.4, 7.5)
Show flow of participants or subjects (CONSORT flow diagrams)
Illustrate models: conceptual, structural equation, confirmatory factor analysis, path models
Qualitative and mixed methods research designs

Drawings

Pictorial representation of information (Figure 7.12, 7.13)
Experimental setups, stimuli

Maps

Spatial information (Figure 7.14)
Government sources (Census Bureau, CDC)

Plots

Present individual data points (Figure 7.15, 7.16)
Scatterplot, multidimensional scaling

Photographs

Direct visual representation of information (Figure 7.17)
Facial expressions, precise placement of stimuli

Multipanel Figures

Combine multiple figure types into one figure (Figure 7.1)
Depends on size and nature of information presented

Figures for Biological Data

Event-related potentials (Figure 7.19)
fMRI data (Figure 7.20)
Genetic maps (Figure 7.21)

Sample Figures

Introduction

Series of figures discussed in the text

Figure 7.2 (Bar Graph)

Sample figure showing framing scores for different reward sizes
Comparison between adolescents and young adults
Framing scores calculated from proportions of risky choices in gain frame vs loss frame
Error bars represent standard errors

Figure 7.3 (Line Graph)

Figure showing regression slopes in Experiment 1 for monocular motion
Source: Sterling, M., Binzham, W. (2018). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.

Figure 7.4 (Conceptual Model)

Sample conceptual model of an integrated child and youth behavioral health system
Centered on the child and family
Includes screening, support, monitoring, prevention, treatment, information systems, policy and service system coordination, and financing

Figure 7.5 (Structural Equation Model)

Sample structural equation model of associations between ASMC (Adolescent Skin Picking Measured by Self-Report) and body-related constructs
Figures 2-12 not provided in text

Figure 7.6 (Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results)

Second-order confirmatory factor analysis for the study
Involves Godaijneles, Coldihier, Shivers, ILEME (Identification and Labelling of Emotion), self-consciousness, body comparison, time spent on social media, loneliness, and body-related constructs

Figure 7.9 (Path Model)

Path analysis model of associations between ASMC and body-related constructs

Other Figures (Not Provided in Text)

Figure 7.10: Sample qualitative research figure - Organizational framework for racial microaggressions in the workplace
Figure 7.11: Sample mixed methods research figure - Multistage paradigm for integrative mixed methods research
Figure 7.12: Sample illustration of experimental setup

Instagram and Telegram: @PDFEnglish

Handle for further information or resources related to the figures.

Figure 7

Introduction

Discussion of Figures 7A and 7B in an experiment on children's inferences

Experiment Design (Figures 7, 13-16)

Description of experimental setup and stimuli: two puppets, different choices, and inferred change
Use of binary dimensions to create unique stimuli for each puppet
Example figures of poverty rate, scatterplot, multidimensional scaling figure, photograph, complex multipanel figure, event-related potential figure, and fMRI figure
Instructions on formatting figures according to APA Style

Citing Scientific Knowledge (Figure 7.21)

Importance of acknowledging researchers' contributions in writing
Ground rules for citation presented
In-text citation formats: interviews, classroom and intranet sources, personal communications, paraphrases, and direct quotations
Warning against plagiarism and self-plagiarism.

In-Text Citation (Figures 7.13-20)

General guidance on providing appropriate citation level
Specific in-text citation formats:
- Parenthetical citations (author's last name and year of publication)
- Multiple works by the same author(s)
- Works with no identified author(s)
- Works with multiple publishers or dates
- Classics and well-known sources
- Interviews, classroom and intranet sources, and personal communications.

Figure 7.21: Genetic Material Physical Map

Description of sample display of genetic material physical map
Microduplications encompassing NFL for subjects with oligonucleotide microarray analysis
Instructions on formatting table entries and column headings in title case or sentence case.

Works Credited in Text

General Guidelines for Citation

Guidelines for Citation

Cite influencing works, providing background, supporting or disputing thesis, offering definitions and data
Cite only read and incorporated ideas
Prefer primary sources over secondary
Document all facts and figures (even personal communications)
Paraphrases and direct quotations require citations
Seek permission and provide attribution for adapted tables, figures, or long quotations
Number of sources depends on paper's purpose
Avoid undercitation (can lead to plagiarism or self-plagiarism) and overcitation

Undercitation and Overcitation

Undercitation: can result in plagiarism, self-plagiarism
Overcitation: distracting, unnecessary
Repeat citations only when topic and source change
When author's name is mentioned, year can be omitted (under certain circumstances)

Citing Sources

Cite ideas from various sources for each new idea presented in the text
Common knowledge does not require a citation
Example of an appropriate level of citation: Bressler & Balshine, 2006; Earleywine, 2010; Tornquist & Chiappe, 2015.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism

Defined as presenting someone else's words, ideas, or images as your own without giving proper credit
Ethical violation in scholarship (APA Ethics Code Standard .11)
Prevents recognition for original authors and stifles research
Disregards the effort of creators and harms those who completed their work
Results in rejection from publication and potential professional consequences
Students may face academic penalties, including failure or expulsion

Avoiding Plagiarism

Provide credit to sources for: paraphrasing, quoting, referring to data, adapting images, or reprinting long passages/test items.
Proper citation takes the form of author date citations (Section .1) or copyright attributions (Section 12.1).
Obtain permission from copyright holders for reprinting and adapting materials (Section 12.17).

Types of Plagiarism

Passages copied verbatim without attribution
Incorrect citations that are not intentional attempts to plagiarize
Use of plagiarism-checking software to identify cases (iThenticate, Turnitin)
Unethical writing practices like fabricating citations and contract cheating.

Consequences of Plagiarism

Deductions on academic assignments or requests for revisions
Rejection from publication
Professional consequences, including censure or expulsion.

Preventing Plagiarism

Take careful notes and accurately cite sources
Ensure citations in text correspond to reference list entries.

Self-Plagiarism

Self-Plagiarism

Presenting previously published work as new is unethical
Deceives readers and misrepresents findings
May lead to copyright violations (duplicate publication)
Academic institutions may consider self-plagiarism a violation of academic integrity, honor code, or ethics

Permissible Use of Previous Work

Incorporating previous classwork into thesis/dissertation with permission
Building on own existing writing
Duplicating material in limited scope without quotation marks or citations
Reanalyzing own previously published data

APA Style Guidelines for Citing Previously Published Work

Each work cited in text must appear in reference list
Spelling and publication dates in both places must match
If masked review, omit previous work from reference list and indicate where it will be reinstated after review
Publishing a work of limited circulation in wider venue without citation or acknowledgment in author note (e.g., doctoral dissertation)

Exceptions to Prohibition Against Self-Plagiarism

Personal communications: cited only in text
General mentions of websites, periodicals, software/apps, epigraphs do not require citation or reference list entry
Quotations from research participants do not need citations or reference list entries
References included in meta-analysis may be cited at author's discretion.

Use of the Published Version or Archival Version

Citing Versions of Works

Multiple versions may exist online
Cite published version when possible (Chapter 1, Examples 1)
If not, cite advance online version (Chapter 1, Example 7), in-press version, final peer-reviewed manuscript, or informally published work (Chapters 1, Examples 7 and 74)
Provide up-to-date publication information when citing these versions

Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary source: original content (Chapter 1, no example)
Secondary source: refers to content already reported in another source (Chapter 1, no example)
Cite secondary sources sparingly (Chapter 1, no example)
Identify primary source and write "as cited in" secondary source in text
If known, include year of publication for primary source in text (e.g., Lyon et al., 2014, as cited in Rabbitt, 1982)
Omit year if unknown (Allport's diary, as cited in Nicholson, 2003).

Works Requiring Special Approaches to Citation

Citing Works with Special Approaches

Interviews

Three categories: published, personal, research participant

Published Interviews

Appear in various formats: magazines, radio broadcasts, podcasts, etc.
Cite following format for reference type
Person interviewed may not appear in author element
Integrate name into sentence if desired

Personal Interviews

Conducted for obtaining information for paper
Not recoverable by readers
Cite as personal communication

Research Participant Interviews

Part of research methodology
Do not require citation in APA Style
Information can be presented and discussed in paper according to guidelines

Classroom or Intranet Resources

Recoverable only by certain audiences: students, employees
Cite using formats shown in Chapter 1, organized by reference group and category
Source element includes name of website or LMS and URL
For professional publication or wider audience, cite as personal communication.

Personal Communications

Citing Personal Communications

Definition:

Personal communications: emails, text messages, online chats, interviews, telephone conversations, speeches, memos, letters, and discussion group or bulletin board messages without archival sources

Usage:

Prefer to cite recoverable sources instead
Use personal communication citation when original content not published elsewhere
Not included in reference list

Format:

Narrative: E.-M. Paradis (personal communication, [date])
Parenthetical: (T. Nguyen, personal communication, [date])

Citing Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions of Indigenous Peoples

Definition:

Depends on recording and recoverability

Recoverable Sources:

Cite in text and reference list (see APA Style website)
Examine sources for accuracy, appropriateness, and cultural sensitivity

Unrecorded Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions:

Describe content and context in text
No reference list entry needed
Collaborate with Indigenous people for accuracy and appropriateness

Capitalization:

Capitalize terms related to Indigenous Peoples (e.g., Cherokee, Cree, Oral Tradition)

Presenting Own Experiences or Unrecorded Traditional Knowledge/Oral Traditions:

Describe yourself and origin of information in text
No personal communication citation or reference list entry needed
Collaborate with other Indigenous people for questions or doubts.

In-Text Citations

APA Style In-Text Citations and Reference List Entries

Background

APA style: Author-Date citation system
Two parts: in-text citations, reference list entries

Components of a Reference List Entry

Figure 8 (Visual representation)
Reference list entry: Author (Purple), Date (Blue), Title (Yellow), Source (Green)

In-Text Citations

Include: author and date
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author (Year)
Four elements: author surname(s), year of publication, title, source

Creating In-Text Citations

For individual authors: last name, year
Shorten list when necessary (Section 17 for individuals, Section 21 for groups)
Unknown or anonymous authors: see Section 14
Date: match with reference list entry, use "n.d." for no date, "in press" for accepted but unpublished
Each in-text citation corresponds to only one reference list entry
Avoid ambiguity (Sections 17, 19, and 2)

Creating Reference List Entries

For details on creating and ordering reference list entries, refer to Chapter 9.

Parenthetical and Narrative Citations

Citing Sources: Parenthetical and Narrative Citations

Two Formats for In-Text Citations:

Parenthetical citations: Author name and publication year in parentheses
Narrative citations: Author name and publication year in running text

Parenthetical Citations:

Separate author names with semicolon
Date follows the last author's name
Period or other end punctuation comes after closing parenthesis
If other text is present, use commas around year

Narrative Citations:

Author appears in running text
Publication date appears in parentheses immediately after author's name
Can have multiple works by the same author listed in chronological order
For works with no date, place them first followed by those with dates.

Multiple Works by Same Authors:

Arrange in chronological order
Give authors’ surnames only for each subsequent work

Highlighting Important Sources:

Place most relevant sources first in parentheses
Use "see also" before less relevant sources

Citing Specific Parts of a Source:

Provide author date citation followed by specific part information
Possible parts to cite: pages, paragraphs, sections, tables, figures, supplemental materials, footnotes, chapters, verses, lines, cantos, slide numbers, time stamps
In the reference list, provide an entry for the entire work, not just the cited part.

Unknown or Anonymous Author

Citing Unknown or Anonymous Works

Unknown Author:

Include title and year in parentheses in text (italicize title if italicized in reference)
Capitalize titles using title case
Example: (Interpersonal Skills, 2019)
For magazine articles: (Understanding Sensory Memory, 2018)

Anonymous Author:

"Anonymous" replaces author name in parentheses
Example: (Anonymous, 2017)

Translated, Reprinted, Republished, or Reissued Works

Include publication dates separated by a slash
Earlier date first
Example: (Freud, 1900-1953), (Piaget, 1966-2000)

Repeated Narrative Citations

Include author and year in every citation in a new paragraph
Year can be omitted within the same paragraph if multiple citations from the same work
Example: Koehler (2016)

Formatting Author Elements in In-Text Citations

Number of Authors	In-Text Citation Style
One author	Last name, year
Two authors	Last names, year
Three to five authors	Last names, year
Six or more authors	Last names et al., year

Exceptions:

For two authors with the same last name: (Last name, A., & Last name, B., year)
For works with no author but a corporate author: (Company Name, year)
For personal interviews: (Interviewee's Last name or Pseudonym, year)
For classical sources and some works with multiple authors having the same first name: Refer to APA Manual for specific formatting guidelines.

Basic In-Text Citation Styles

In-Text Citation Styles:

Different formats for parenthetical and narrative citations
One author: (Luna, 2020) or Luna (2020)
Two authors: (Salas & D Agostino, 2020) or Salas and D Agostino (2020)
Three or more authors: (Martin et al., 2020) or Martin et al. (2020)
Group author with abbreviation: (NIMH, 2020) or National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2020)
Group author without abbreviation: (Stanford University, 2020) or Stanford University (2020)
Define group author abbreviation once in the text and use consistently thereafter
Use an ampersand (&) between names for two authors when using parenthetical citation

Avoiding Ambiguity:

Multiple works with same publication year, same authors: include a lowercase letter after year (Judge Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012a and Judge Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012b)
Same surname, different initials: spell out all names in every citation (J. M. Taylor Neimeyer and T. Taylor)
Same surname, same initials: cite in standard author date format (Chen Chen)

Works with the Same Author and Same Date:

Multiple references have identical author(s) and publication year: include a lowercase letter after year (Judge Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012a and Judge Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012b)

Abbreviating Group Authors:

Abbreviation can be used for well-known groups that help avoid repetition
Provide full name of group on first mention followed by abbreviation (American Psychological Association (APA))

General Mentions of Websites, Periodicals, and Common Software/Apps:

No reference list entry or in-text citation needed for general mentions of websites without specific page information, periodicals, common software, or apps. Provide the name and version used if known (We created our survey using Qualtrics) or the title of the journal in italicized title case (I searched the Journal of Abnormal Psychology for studies).

Paraphrases and Quotations

Paraphrasing

Principles of Paraphrasing

Restate idea in own words
Effective writing strategy
Summarize and synthesize info, focus on significant details
Compare and contrast relevant details
Publish authors paraphrase, student authors should emulate
Use professional tone
Cite work being paraphrased

Narrative vs Parenthetical Format

Citation in text: narrative or parenthetical (Section .11)

Avid Readers and Paraphrasing

Science fiction/fantasy readers more likely to believe in futuristic scenarios

Long Paraphrases

May continue for several sentences
Cite work on first mention
No need to repeat citation if context clear (Figure 8.4)
Reintroduce citation if paraphrase continues into new paragraph
Repeat citation when sources switch or incorporate multiple sources (Figure 8.5)

Impact of Paraphrasing on Helping Professionals

Symptoms of impaired wellness: emotional exhaustion, reduced empathy, disrupted relationships, decreased work satisfaction, avoidance of situations, feelings of helplessness (Elwood et al., 2011, Figley, 2002, O'Halloran & Linton, 2000)
Multiple citations necessary to clarify sources when ideas come from different combinations of works.

Principles of Direct Quotation

Principles of Direct Quotations

Direct Quotation vs. Paraphrasing

Reproduces words verbatim from another work or previously published work
Use paraphrasing for fitting material to context and writing style
Use direct quotations for exact definitions, memorable quotes, or responding to exact wording
Consult instructor or editor regarding quotation limits
Provide proper citation in parenthetical or narrative format

Formatting Direct Quotations

Short Quotations (Fewer Than 40 Words)

Incorporate into the text with double quotation marks
Cite author, year, and page number in the same sentence
Parenthetical citation: after quotation or at end of sentence
Narrative citation: in sentence followed by page number in parentheses

Examples

Text	Correct	Incorrect	Rationale
Effective teams can be difficult to describe because high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another. (Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470)	Effective teams can be difficult to describe because high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another (Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470)	The period marking the end of a sentence should follow the citation, not precede it.
Even smart, educated, emotionally stable adults believe superstitions that they recognize are not rational, as exemplified by the existence of people who knock on wood for good luck. (Risen, 2016, p. 202)	Even smart, educated, emotionally stable adults believe superstitions that they recognize are not rational (Risen, 2016, p. 202), as exemplified by the existence of people who knock on wood for good luck	The citation should be outside the quotation marks, not within them.

Long Quotations (40 Words or More)

Use block format with a separate line and indentation
Do not use quotation marks for long quotations
Cite author, year, and page number at the end of the quotation.

Block Quotations 40 Words or More

Block Quotations

Long Quotations: more than 40 words
No quotation marks for block quotes
Start on new line, indented 0.5 inches
Double-space
Cite source:
- Parentheses after quotation: (Author Last Name Year, page number)
- Narrative before quotation and page number in parentheses
Block Quotation with multiple paragraphs: same rules as single paragraph, but indent first line of each subsequent paragraph 0.5 inches more.

Direct Quotations Without Page Numbers

Cite source using one of the following methods:
- Provide heading or section name
- Abbreviated heading or section name in quotation marks
- Paragraph number
- Heading or section name and paragraph number.

Audiovisual Works

To directly quote from an audiovisual work, provide a time stamp for the beginning of the quotation.

Works with Canonically Numbered Sections

To directly quote from material with canonically numbered sections (e.g., religious or classical works), use the name of the book, chapter, verse, line, and/or canto instead of a page number.

Accuracy of Quotations

Quoting Accurately

Importance of accurate direct quotations
Wording, spelling, and interior punctuation should match original source
Use "sic" for any errors in the source that might confuse readers
Consider paraphrasing if error is distracting

Changes to Quotations

Changes not requiring explanation: capitalization, punctuation, quotation marks
Changes requiring explanation: italics, emphasis, omitted material, inserted material

Quoting from Bulleted Lists

For more information on quoting from bulleted lists, refer to Section 2 in the text

Changes Not Requiring Explanation

Changing first letter of first word
Changing punctuation marks
Changing quotation marks
Omitting footnote or endnote number callouts

Changes Requiring Explanation

Adding emphasis (italics, "emphasis added" in square brackets)
Omitted material (use ellipsis, "...")
Inserted material (square brackets)

Quoting Gossip Studies Example

De Backer and Fisher's quotation about gossip (2012)
Emphasizing certain words in the quotation ("emphasis added")
Necessity to repeat citations for multiple ideas from the same source

Omitting Material with Ellipsis

Use ellipsis (...) to indicate omitted material within a quotation
Do not use at beginning or end of quotation unless original source includes it
Use four periods (period + ellipsis, ". ...") for sentence break within omitted material

Adding Material in Quotations

Use square brackets [ ] to enclose added or explanatory material
Do not use parentheses for this purpose.

Quotations That Contain Citations to Other Works When quoting material that contains embedded citations, include the citations within the quotation. D

Quoting Material with Embedded Citations

Quote material containing citations within the quotation marks
Do not include cited works in reference list unless primary sourced is cited elsewhere
Footnote or endnote callouts can be omitted
If citations appear at end of quoted material, cite only work being quoted
Omit citations if quoting a summary of cited works

Quotations Containing Quotation Marks

Quote material directly from original source if possible
Cite secondary source if original is unavailable
Change quotation marks if necessary depending on number of words being quoted

Short Quotations

Use single quotation marks within double quotation marks for short quotations already in quotation marks

Block Quotations

Use double quotation marks around quoted material within block quotations

Permission to Reprint or Adapt Lengthy Quotations

Obtain written permission for lengthy quotations (usually more than 250 words) from copyright holders
Shorter works such as poems and songs may also require permission.

Epigraphs

Epigraphs

Definition: quotation introduced before a work, sets stage or serves as summary/counterpoint
Formatting: indented 0.5 in., no quotation marks, credit line if not in reference list
Source usually not listed unless important or cited elsewhere

Research and Epigraph from Academic Source

Epigraph from Zora Neale Hurston: "Research is formalized curiosity"
Reference list entry for academic sources of epigraphs or quotes used with permission

Quotations From Research Participants

Quotations in text: fewer than 40 words in quotation marks, longer quotations in block quotations
Not included in reference list, stated as from participants in text
Abide by ethical agreements regarding confidentiality and anonymity
Disguise materials if necessary (pseudonyms, obscure identifying info, aggregate data)
Example: participant Julia described new motherhood as best/hardest time of her life

School Policy Documents and Confidentiality

Quoting sources related to methodology requires discretion
May discuss information if suitably disguised to protect confidentiality/anonymity
Our study was conducted at a high school in Atlanta, used administrative documents for context.

REFERENCE LIST

Reference Lists

Purpose: Identify and retrieve works cited in a paper
Choose references judiciously, only include used works
Differences between reference lists and bibliographies

Creating Reference List Entries

Determining the Reference Category

Works organized by group, category, and type
Textual works, data sets, software, tests, audiovisual media, online media
Determine group, category, and reference type for citation

Using the Webpages and Websites Reference Category

Use when work does not fit into another category
Ask: "What type of work is on this website?"
Choose most similar reference type and follow example
Examples: report from a government website, webpage from a government website

Online and Print References

Same template for print and online versions
Differences in source element for online works with DOIs or URLs
Database information not usually included

Principles of Reference List Entries

Who (author), When (date), What (title), Where (source)
Answer these questions to create a reference for any work
See sections on author, date, title, and source for more info.

Reference Information Locations Figure 9.1 shows an example of an article title page highlighting the locations of the reference elements and their placement in a reference list entry.

Date Developmental Psychology

Introduction

Text discusses a research article on "Sensitivity to the evaluation of others" by Valeneia Bollo and Philippe Rochat
No publication date given in text, but provided in reference list entry

Research Article Details Botto & Rochat (2018)

Title: "Sensitivity to the evaluation of others emerges by 24 months"
Authors: Valeneia Bollo and Philippe Rochat
Publication: Developmental Psychology
Reference list entry: Botto, S. V., & Rochat, P. (2018). Sensitivity to the evaluation of others emerges by 24 months: Developmental Psychology, 54(91), 1723-1734. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000548

Table 9.1: How to Create a Reference When Information Is Missing

Table explaining how to create a reference when some information is missing, such as date or author

Creating a Reference with Missing Elements General template

Provide the available elements in the correct order for the given reference category
If an element is missing, use the suggested solutions from the table

Title Creating a Reference with a Missing Date

Provide author, title, and source
Example: Author. (Date). Title. Source.
In-text citation: (Author, year)

Creating a Reference without a Date or Title

Describe the work in square brackets, provide author and source
Example: Description of work. (Date). Source.
In-text citation: Author. (n.d.)

Author and Date Creating a Reference with a Missing Title

Provide title, date, and source
Example: Title. (Date). Source.
In-text citation: Title (year)

Creating a Reference without a Date or Title

Describe the work in square brackets, provide author and source
Example: Description of work. (n.d.). Source.
In-text citation: (Description of work, year)

Author and Title Creating a Reference with a Missing Date

Describe the work in square brackets, provide author and source
Example: Description of work. (Date). Source.
In-text citation: Author (year)

Creating a Reference without Date or Title

Describe the work in square brackets, provide date and source
Example: Description of work. (n.d.). Source.
In-text citation: (Description of work, n.d.)

Date and Title Creating a Reference with a Missing Author

Provide title, write "n.d." for no date, and then provide source
Example: Title. (n.d.). Source.
In-text citation: Title (n.d.)

Creating a Reference without an Author or Title

Describe the work in square brackets, write "n.d." for no date, and then provide source
Example: Description of work. (n.d.). Source.
In-text citation: (Description of work, n.d.)

Source Citing as a Personal Communication or Finding Another Work to Cite Personal communication

If no reference list entry is possible, use "personal communication" in the text and provide the communicator's name, date, and any other relevant information in parentheses
Example: C. C. Communicator (personal communication, month day, year)

Finding another work to cite

If no reference list entry is possible for a specific source, find another work that can be cited instead
Note: The text does not provide any instructions on how to do this, but it's mentioned as an alternative solution in the table.

Punctuation Within Reference List Entries

Punctuation in Reference List Entries

Use punctuation marks within reference list entries to group information
Period after each reference element: author, date, title, and source, except DOI or URL
Use commas or parentheses between parts of the same reference element
Italicize punctuation marks within an italicized reference element

Accuracy and Consistency in References

Importance of accurate and complete reference data
Check each reference against original publication
Consistent formatting following APA Style guidelines
Helps establish credibility as a researcher
Saves time when reading others' reference lists
Important for publishers to index sources correctly

Reference Elements: Author

Definition of an author: person(s) or group responsible for a work
Individual, multiple people, group, or combination
Determined from context if not listed in byline
Organizations, government agencies, and institutions as authors when producing the work
No author treatment for works without identified author.

Additional Reference Elements

9.1: Specialized author roles: editor, director, etc.
9.11: Group authors
9.12: Works without an author.

Format of the Author Element

Formatting Author Element

Guidelines for formatting author element
Invert individual authors' names, providing surname first and initials: Author, A. A.
Use a comma to separate authors' initials from additional names: Author, A. A., Author, B. B.
Do not use commas for group authors: American Psychological Association, National Institutes of Health
Use serial comma before ampersand with three or more authors: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., Author, C. C.
Provide surnames and initials for up to two authors, use ampersand before final author's name
For 21 or more authors, include first 19 names, ellipsis, and final author's name: Author, A. A., ..., Author, Z. Z.
One space between initials
Retain hyphen and include period for hyphenated names: u, A.-J. or Raboso, L.**
Use commas to separate initials and suffixes such as Jr. and III: Author, A. A., Jr.
If nonprimary authors are credited with "with," include them in parentheses in reference list, but only cite primary author in text: Meyers, K. (with Long, W. T.)
For authors with one name, provide full name or username without abbreviation: Plato, Sukarno, Lady Gaga
Do not include titles, positions, ranks, or academic achievements with names in reference list entries
Some exceptions for author's role in parentheses (e.g., film director)
For individual and group social media authors, provide real name followed by username in square brackets: [John Smith] @authorname.
If the symbol is part of a username, include it with the username in brackets: [Author@symbol]

Spelling and Capitalization of Author Names

Guidelines for Author Names and Specialized Roles

Author Names

Write surname exactly as published, including hyphenated or two-part surnames
Consult other works or bibliographic databases for uncertain formats
Retain preferred capitalization in both reference list and in-text citation

Specialized Roles

Recognize individuals who contributed substantially to a work
Use parentheses after surname and initials, followed by a period
Use "(Ed.)" for one editor, "(Eds.)" for multiple editors
If multiple specialized roles, identify each role separately
Combine multiple roles with an ampersand (&)
When a group author is involved, see below

Group Authors

Spell out full name in reference list entry, followed by a period
Use abbreviation in text, but not in reference list entry
Use most specific agency as author in reference
Include parent agencies in source element if necessary for differentiation
Treat a work as having no author when its author is unknown or cannot be determined
In such cases, move the title to author position and follow with date

References

Anonymous. (2017)
Generali ed anxiety disorder. (2019)

In-Text Citations for No Author

(Generali ed anxiety disorder, 2019)

Reference List Ordering for No Authors

Alphabetize by title (if no title, use a letter "n/a")

Date

Definition and Format of Date Element

Definition: The date refers to the date of publication in a reference.
Takes various forms: year only, year, month, day, year and season, or range of dates.
For books, use copyright date on the work's copyright page.
For journal articles, use the year of the volume.
When citing webpages and websites, ensure the copyright date applies to the content being cited.
Use more specific dates for frequently published works.
Enclose the date in parentheses followed by a period.
For unpublished or informally published works, provide the year produced.
Do not use "in progress" or "submitted for publication."
For works with approximate publication dates, use "ca." (circa).

9.13-9.16 Format of the Date Element and Special Cases

Format: Follow the date format shown in each reference category.
More specific dates for frequently published works.
Use parentheses and period.
For unpublished or informally published works, provide the year produced.
Do not use "in progress" or "submitted for publication."
If a work has been accepted but not yet published, use "in press."
For advance online publications, use the year of advance online publication.
Use final publication date if both are available.

Updated or Reviewed Online Works

Some online works note when updated.
If a specific content update is attributable to what's being cited, use the updated date in the reference.
Do not include a date of last review in a reference because reviewed content may not have been changed.
Ignore a noted review date for the purposes of the reference.

Retrieval Dates

For unarchived works that are likely or meant to change, provide a retrieval date in the source element.
Indicates to readers that the version they retrieve may be different from the one used.
For archived works, a retrieval date is not necessary because the archived version is stable and can be retrieved via a permalink.

Works with No Date

For works with no known or determinable publication date, write "n.d." (no date) in parentheses.
Put a period after the "n" and after the "d," with no space between them.
The date also appears as "n.d." in the corresponding in-text citation.

Title

Title Element

Definition:

Title refers to the title of the work being cited
Two types: works that stand alone & works part of a greater whole

Format:

For works that stand alone, italicize title & capitalize sentence case
Example: Adoption-specific therapy: A guide to helping adopted children and their families thrive
For works that are part of a greater whole, do not italicize or quote, capitalize sentence case
Example: The virtue gap in humor: Exploring benevolent and corrective humor
Parenthetical information: enclose in parentheses after title, no period, capitalize sentence case
Example: Nursing: A concept-based approach to learning (2nd ed., Vol. 1)
If volume title is included, treat as main title
Finish with a period unless title ends with a question mark or exclamation point

Series and Multivolume Works:

For multivolume works: include series title in reference list entry
For conceptually related but separate works: only include book title, not series title
Bracketed descriptions for non-peer reviewed works to aid identification
Capitalize first letter of description, do not italicize
Example: Comprehensive meta-analysis (Version 3.3.070): Computer software

Bracketed Descriptions:

Provide a description in square brackets after title to help identify works outside peer-reviewed literature
Examples: Instagram and Telegram: @PDFEnglish.press releases, films, YouTube videos, photographs, software, data sets, manuscripts, dissertations and theses, social media references with attached links or images
Consistency of wording is helpful but alter to best convey information
Use succinct descriptions

Works without a Title:

Include description in square brackets instead of title
Example: Map showing the population density of the United States as of the year 2010
For untitled comments on periodical articles, include up to the first 2 words and a description
For untitled social media posts, include up to the first 2 words and a bracketed description.

Source

Definition and Format of Source Element

Source: indicates where readers can retrieve cited work
Two categories: works that are part of a greater whole, works that stand alone
Format: one or two parts depending on reference type
Periodical sources (Section 9.2): journal, magazine, newspaper, newsletter, blog
Source for periodicals: title, volume number, issue number, page range/article number, DOI/URL
Capitalize and italicize periodical title, write in title case
Separate elements with commas, finish with period and DOI/URL

Guidelines for Specific Kinds of Sources

Periodicals (Sections 9.25 - 9.27)

Provide periodical title, volume number, issue number, page range/article number, and DOI/URL
Capitalize and italicize title, write in title case
Separate elements with commas, finish with period and DOI/URL

Edited Book Chapters and Reference Work Entries (Section 9.2)

Source: edited book or reference work plus publisher
Include editors' names, italicized title, page range, and publisher
Use "In" before editor(s)' names followed by a comma
Add "Ed." for single editor, "Eds." for multiple editors
If edition/volume information available, include in parentheses after title

Publishers (Section 9.29)

Source: publisher's name

Databases and Archives (Section 9.28)

Source: database or archive name plus provider and date of access

Works with Specific Locations (Section 9.1)

Source: title, location, date, and any applicable DOI/URL

Social Media (Section 9.2)

Source: social media site name, author's username or handle, title, date, and any applicable DOI/URL

Webpages and Websites (Section 9.3)

Source: website name, title, date, and any applicable DOI/URL

Works that have a DOI or URL (Sections 9.4 - 9.6)

Source: author(s), title, DOI/URL

Works without a Source (Section 9.7)

Source: N/A.

Publisher Sources

Publisher Information

General Guidelines

Publisher name in reference list
Write as shown on work
No abbreviation unless from the work
Use imprint or division if applicable
Do not include business structure
Separate multiple publishers with semicolons

Specific Instances

No publisher needed when author = publisher (e.g., annual reports, professional organization publications)

Example

Guilford Press; Basic Books.

Additional Information

DOI or URL after period if applicable.

Online Publishers

No need to include location
May be unclear for publishers with international offices or online-only publishers
Write as shown on the work, follow publisher's preferred style.

Database and Archive Sources

Database and Archive Sources

Database and archive information seldom necessary in reference lists
Purpose is to enable readers to perform their own searches
Most content available through databases or platforms
Provide database or archive name for original, proprietary works
Use italic title case
Include location details for works associated with specific locations
Two-letter postal code abbreviations for US states and analogous abbreviations for other countries

Example: New York, NY, United States

Social Media Sources

Use as a source only when content was originally published there (Instagram post, tweet, Facebook post)
Provide the social media site name in title case without italics
Include period and URL

Example: Twitter. https://twitter.com/username

Website Sources

Format for citing a website as source for a webpage
Provide website name in title case without italics
Include period and URL
Omit site name from source element when author is the same as website name

Example: BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news

When to Include DOIs and URLs

DOIs and URLs in References

What are DOIs and URLs?

Final component of reference list entries
Identify online content and provide persistent links

DOIs

Unique alphanumeric string identifying content
Starts with "doi.org" or "dx.doi.org"
Assigned by publishers, registration agencies like Crossref
Persistent link to location on internet
Example: "10.1038/xxxXXX"

URLs

Specify location of digital information on internet
Found in address bar of web browser
Direct links to cited work preferred

Guidelines for Including DOIs and URLs in References For works with DOIs:

Include DOI in reference, regardless of source used

For works without DOIs but available online (not from databases):

Provide URL in reference

For works from databases:

If widely available, no need to include URL or database information
For limited circulation or proprietary material, include name of database and URL

If URL is not working or no longer provides access:

Follow guidance for works with no source (Section 9.7)

Other Alphanumeric Identifiers

International Standard Book Number (ISBN) and International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) not included in APA Style references

Format of DOIs and URLs

DOIs and URLs Formatting

Format DOIs and URLs as hyperlinks
Use "https doi.org" or "https: doi.org" for DOI presentation
Provide the entire DOI number
Use shortDOIs or shortened URLs if necessary
Test URLs before submitting paper

DOIs vs. Nonrecoverable Sources

Include only recoverable sources in reference list
Personal communications, non-accessible online works are not acceptable
If content is no longer available online, use archived versions or delete reference

Reference Variations

Works in another language
- Provide original title and translation in square brackets
- Translate title for readers' understanding
- Use appropriate grammar and punctuation
- Transliterate alphabet if necessary
- Provide title translation before period
Reprinted, reissued, or republished works
- Provide publication history in reference list entry
- Identify specific edition or version cited
Multiple authors
- Use "et al." for more than two authors after first author's name
- Alphabetize by last name of first author
Corporate authorship
- Use company name as author
- Provide additional identifying information if needed
Anonymous works
- Identify work as anonymous in reference list entry
- Cite in text with phrase "Anonymous," or "Author Unknown"
In press works
- Use "in press" instead of publication date
- Update citation when published version is available.

Translated Works

Citing Sources: Translation, Reprinted, Republished, and Religious/Classical Works

Translation:

Provide information about translated version read
Credit translator
Include year of translation publication in parentheses (Original work published _)
See Section .15 for in-text citation

Reprinted Works:

Provide information about current publication
In parentheses, provide information about original publication
See Section .15 for in-text citation

Examples:

Journal article reprinted in another journal
Journal article reprinted as a chapter in an edited book
Chapter in an edited book reprinted in another book

Republished or Reissued Works:

Provide details of new publication
Include year of original publication in parentheses (Original work published _)
See Section .15 for in-text citation

Examples:

Republished journal article
Republished books
Work republished in an anthology

Religious and Classical Works:

Citations similar to books, but:
- Religious works treated as having no author if unannotated
- Annotated versions have editor
- Year of original publication may be unknown or in dispute
Republished religious or classical works include republished dates
Translated religious/classical works include translator's name
Format in-text citations as for books (Section .2)

Examples:

Religious works with canonically numbered parts use those numbers instead of page numbers when referring to a specific part or directly quoting the work.

Reference List Format and Order

APA Style Reference List Formatting

Beginning the Reference List

Start on new page after text
Center "References" in bold
Double-space entire list
Apply hanging indent (0.5 inch) to each entry

Order of Works in the Reference List

Alphabetical order by author's surname and given name: Loft, V.H. precedes loftus, E.F.
Disregard spaces, punctuation, suffixes, titles, or degrees when alphabetizing
Arrange works by authors with the same name in birth order
See Figure 9.2 for examples and review published articles or APA Style website for further examples.

Order of Surname and Given Name

Check author's preferred form (website, institution, bio) or their previous publications
Example: "hang, Y.-C." in China but "Yi-Chen hang" in the US, list as "hang, Y.-C." in reference list. (Section 9.9 for more)

Order of Multiple Works by the Same First Author

Citing Multiple Works by the Same First Author

Order of Multiple One-Author Works

Include author's name in every entry
Arrange alphabetically by year of publication (earliest first)
References with no date come before those with dates
In-press references last

Order of Multiple Author Works with Same First Author

Arrange alphabetically by surname of second author or subsequent authors

Ambiguity with Same Author and Year

Use lowercase letters after year in both in-text citation and reference list entry
Compare dates, then alphabetize by title (disregarding "A," "An," and "The")

Order of Works with the Same Author and Same Date (in a Series)

Order in series order, regardless of titles' alphabetical order

Order of Works by First Authors with the Same Surname

Arrange alphabetically by first initial(s)

Citing Works with No Author or Anonymous Author

Consider if a group or organization is author instead
If "Anonymous," begin with "Anonymous" and alphabetize as if it were a name
If no author and not anonymous, use title and alphabetize by first significant word (disregarding "A," "An," and "The")
Alphabetize numerals as though spelled out

References Patel, S. N. (2016). ... Patel, S. N. (2020a). ... Patel, S. N. (2020b, April). ... Patel, S. N. (in press). ... Davison, T. E. (2019). ... Davison, T. E., & McCabe, M. P. (2015). ... Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2013). ... Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2014). ... Jacobson, T. E., Duncan, B., Young, S. E. (2019). ... Jacobson, T. E., Raymond, K. M. (2017). ... Pfeiffer, S. J., Chu, W.-W., & Park, S. H. (2018). ... Pfeiffer, S. J., Chu, W.-W., & Wall, T. L. (2018). ... A ikiwe, H., & Bello, A. (2020a). ... A ikiwe, H., & Bello, A. (2020b, March 26). ... A ikiwe, H., & Bello, A. (2020c, April 2). ... Judge, T. A., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. (2012a). ... Judge, T. A., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. (2012b). ... Taylor, J. M., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2015). Taylor, T. (2014). Anonymous, (n.d.-a). Anonymous, (n.d.-b).

Abbreviations in References

Abbreviations in References

Some parts of publications are abbreviated in the reference list for space saving
Abbreviation | Meaning | Reference part | | ---|---|--- | | ed. | Edition | | | Rev. ed. | Revised edition | | | 2nd ed. | Second edition | | | Ed. (Eds.) | Editor(s) | | | Trans. | Translator(s) | | | Narr. (Narrs.) | Narrator(s) | | | n.d. | No date | | | p. (pp.) | Page(s) | | | para. (paras.) | Paragraph(s) | | | Vol. (Vols.) | Volume(s) | | | No. | Number | | | Pt. | Part | | | Tech. Rep. | Technical report | | | Suppl. | Supplement |

Annotated Bibliographies

Type of student paper with short descriptions after each reference
Most APA Style guidelines apply
Format and order in alphabetical order
Each annotation a new paragraph below the reference entry
Indent entire annotation .5 in. from left margin
Annotations can span multiple paragraphs, indent first line of second and subsequent paragraphs
No need to cite work being annotated within annotation unless clarifying source
Instructors set requirements for number and length of references, focus of annotations

References in a Meta-Analysis

Should be incorporated alphabetically into reference list
Mark with asterisk (*) to indicate inclusion in meta-analysis
Statement describing purpose of asterisks at beginning of reference list
References do not need to be cited in text but can be at author's discretion.

Reference Examples

Referencing in Scholarly Discourse

Importance of crediting scholars' contributions
Accurate and consistent citation
Examples in APA Style with in-text citations

Reference Categories and Examples Textual works

Periodicals

Journal articles

Books and reference works

Monographs, edited books, proceedings

Edited book chapters and reference work entries

Contributions to edited books, sections in anthologies

Reports and gray literature

Government reports, white papers, theses, dissertations

Conference sessions and presentations

Papers, posters, symposia, workshops

Dissertations and theses

Doctoral and master's theses

Online Media Social media and webpages/websites

Blog posts, forums, social media platforms

Audiovisual media

YouTube videos, speeches, podcast episodes

Data sets, software, tests

Databases, spreadsheets, software, questionnaires

Key Elements of a Reference

Author (who)
Date (when)
Title (what)
Source (where)

Format Templates and Examples

Provide more information than less
Use the template for the applicable reference category as a starting point
Mix and match elements within a template
In-text citations contain "who" and "when"
Legal references have different formatting (Chapter 11)
Additional examples on APA Style website and blog.

Textual Works

Periodical Publications

Definition and Types

Continuously published works including: journals, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, blogs, and online platforms
Distinctions between periodical types ambiguous (e.g., a blog on a newspaper website)

Reference List Entry Pattern

Author(s)
Year of Publication
Title of Article
Title of Periodical
Periodical Information (if available): volume number, issue number, page range, DOI or URL

Journal Articles

Example with DOI: McCauley, S. M., Christiansen, M. H. (2019). Language learning as language use: A cross-linguistic model of child language development. Psychological Review, 126(1), 1–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000126
Example without DOI and nondatabase URL: Ahmann, E., Tuttle, L. J., Saviet, M., Wright, S. D. (2018). A descriptive review of ADHD coaching research: Implications for college students. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 31(1), 17–39. www.ahead.org/professional-resources/publications/ped/archived-ped/ped-volume-31
Parenthetical citation: (McCauley & Christiansen, 2019); (Ahmann et al., 2018)
Narrative citation: McCauley and Christiansen (2019); Ahmann et al. (2018)

Journal Articles without DOI or URL from most academic research databases or print version

Anderson, M. (2018). Getting consistent with consequences. Educational Leadership, 76(1), 26–33.
Goldman, C. (2018, November 28). The complicated calibration of love, especially in adoption. Chicago Tribune.
Parenthetical citation: (Anderson, 2018); (Goldman, 2018)
Narrative citation: Anderson (2018); Goldman (2018)

Journal articles with a DOI combination of individual and group authors

De Vries, R., Nieuwenhuis, M., Buitendijk, S. E., & the members of Midwifery Science Work Group (2013). What does it take to have a strong and independent profession of midwifery? Lessons from the Netherlands. Midwifery, 29(10), 1122–1128. https://doi.org/10.1016/midw.2013.07.007
Parenthetical citation: (De Vries et al., 2013)
Narrative citation: De Vries et al. (2013)

Journal articles with an article number or eLocator

Burin, D., Kilteni, K., Rabuffetti, M., Slater, M., Pia, L. (2019). Body ownership increases the interference between observed and executed movements. PLOS ONE, 14(1), e0209899. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209899
Parenthetical citation: (Burin et al., 2019)
Narrative citation: Burin et al. (2019)

Journal articles in press

Pachur, T., & Scheibehenne, B. (in press). Unpacking buyer–seller differences in valuation from experience: A cognitive modeling approach. Psychonomic Bulletin Review.
Parenthetical citation: (Pachur & Scheibehenne, in press)
Narrative citation: Pachur and Scheibehenne (in press)

Journal articles published in another language

Chaves-Morillo, V., Gómez Calero, C., Fernández-Muñoz, J. J., Toledano-Muñoz, A., Fernández-Huete, J., Martínez-Monge, N., Palacios-Ceña, D., & Peñacoba-Puente, C. (2018). La anosmia neurosensorial: Relación entre subtipo, tiempo de reconocimiento y edad [Sensorineural Anosmia: Relationship between subtype, recognition time, and age]. Clínica y Salud, 28(3), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/.clysa.2017.04.002
Parenthetical citation: (Chaves-Morillo et al., 2018)
Narrative citation: Chaves-Morillo et al. (2018)
Include translation of article title in square brackets when paper is in a different language.

Journal Articles

Citing Different Types of Sources

Journal Articles

Piaget, J. (1970, 1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15(1), 1–12. DOI: 10.1159/000271225
Shore, M. F. (1981, 2014). Marking time in the land of plenty: Reflections on mental health in the United States. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(6), 611–618. DOI: 10.1037/h0100165

Special Sections or Special Issues

Lilienfeld, S. O., McDaniel, S. H., Salas, E., & Kak, A. E. (Eds.). (2018). The science of teamwork. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 51–104.
McDaniel, S. H., Salas, E., & Kak, A. E. (Eds.). (2018). The science of teamwork.

Articles from Databases

Mehrhol, J., Pohl, M., Plat, T., Kugler, J., & Elsner, B. (2018). Electromechanical and robot-assisted arm training for improving activities of daily living, arm function, and arm muscle strength after stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/14651858.CD006876.pub5
Morey, M. C. (2019). Physical activity and exercise in older adults. UpToDate. Retrieved July 22, 2019, from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/physical-activity-and-exercise-in-older-adults

Magazine Articles

Bergeson, S. (2019, January 4). Really cool neutral plasmas. Science, 363(6422), 33–34. DOI: 10.1126/science.aau7988
Hess, A. (2019, January 3). Cats who take direction. The New York Times, C1.

Newspaper Articles

Guarino, B. (2017, December 4). How will humanity react to alien life? Psychologists have some predictions. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp20171204_how-will-humanity-react-to-alien-life---psychologists-have-some-predictions/

Blog Posts

Klymkowsky, M. (2018, September 15). Can we talk scientifically about free will? Sci-Ed.

Comments on Online Periodicals

KS in NJ. (2019, January 15). From this article, it sounds like men are figuring something out that women have known forever. I know of many. [Comment on the article] "How workout buddies can help stave off loneliness". The Washington Post.

Editorial

Reference Format: Editorials

Editorial by Cuellar, N. G. (2016)
Title: Study abroad programs
Journal: Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 27(3), 209
DOI: 10.1177/1043659616638722
URL: https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659616638722
Parenthetical citation: (Cuellar, 2016)
Narrative citation: Cuellar (2016)

Reference Format: Books and Reference Works

Authored Book with DOI

Brown, L. S. (2018). Feminist psychoanalysis (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.
DOI: 10.1037/0000092-000
Parenthetical citation: (Brown, 2018)
Narrative citation: Brown (2018)

Authored Book without DOI from most academic research databases or print version

Burgess, R. (2019). Repinking global health: Frameworks of power. Routledge.
Parenthetical citation: (Burgess, 2019)
Narrative citation: Burgess (2019)

Authored eBook without DOI with a nondatabase URL

Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking (K. Maurer, Narr.). Random House Audio. http://bit.ly/2G0BpbI
Christian, B., Griffiths, T. (2016). Algorithms to live by: The computer science of human decisions. Henry Holt and Co. http://a.co/7qGBAk
Parenthetical citations: (Cain, 2012; Christian & Griffiths, 2016)
Narrative citations: Cain (2012) and Christian and Griffiths (2016)

Authored book with editor credited on the book cover

Meadows, D. H. (2008). Thinking in systems: A primer (D. Wright, Ed.). Chelsea Green Publishing.
Parenthetical citation: (Meadows, 2008)
Narrative citation: Meadows (2008)

Edited book with a DOI with multiple publishers

Schmid, H.-J. (Ed.). (2017). Entrenchment and the psychology of language learning - How we reorganize and adapt linguistic knowledge. American Psychological Association; De Gruyter Mouton.
DOI: 10.1037/15969-000
Parenthetical citation: (Schmid, 2017)
Narrative citation: Schmid (2017)

Separate multiple publisher names using semicolons

Edited book without a DOI from most academic research databases or print version

Hacker Hughes, J. (Ed.). (2017). Military veteran psychological health and social care - Contemporary approaches. Routledge.
Parenthetical citation: (Hacker Hughes, 2017)
Narrative citation: Hacker Hughes (2017)

Edited eBook (e.g., Kindle book or audiobook) without a DOI with a nondatabase URL

Pridham, K. F., Limbo, R., & Schroeder, M. (Eds.). (2018). Guided participation in pediatric nursing practice - Relationship-based teaching and learning with parents, children, and adolescents. Springer Publishing Company. http://a.co/0IAiVgt
Parenthetical citation: (Pridham et al., 2018)
Narrative citation: Pridham et al. (2018)

Note when a notation is needed after an audiobook title if the content is different, or if you quote from the audiobook.

Book in another language

Citing Books in Different Languages and Formats

Books in Other Languages

Amano, N., Kondo, H. (2000). Nihongo no goi tokusei [Characteristics of the Japanese Language] (Vol. 7). Sansei-do.
Piaget, J., Inhelder, B. (1966). La psychologie de l'enfant [The Psychology of the Child]. Quadrige.

Citations for Books in Other Languages

Parenthetical: (Amano & Kondo, 2000) and (Piaget & Inhelder, 1966)
Narrative: Amano and Kondo (2000) and Piaget and Inhelder (1966)

Republished Books

Piaget, J., Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child (H. Weaver, Trans.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1966)
Freud, S. (2010). The interpretation of dreams: The complete and definitive text (J. Strachey, Ed. Trans.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1900)

Citations for Republished Books

Parenthetical: (Piaget & Inhelder, 1966, 1969) and (Freud, 1900, 2010)
Narrative: Piaget and Inhelder (1966, 1969) and Freud (1900, 2010)

Editor(s) and Translator(s)

If a new version has been edited or translated from the original, include their names in the citation.

Books in Series

Fiske, S. T., Gilbert, D. T., Lindley, G. (2010). Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1). John Wiley Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119
Travis, C. B., White, J. W. (Eds.) (2018). APA handbook of the psychology of women Vol. 1. History, theory, and battlegrounds. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000059-000

Citations for Books in Series

Parenthetical: (Fiske et al., 2010) and (Travis & White, 2018)
Narrative: Fiske et al. (2010) and Travis and White (2018)

Books in a Series

Madigan, S. (2019). Narrative therapy (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000131-000
Parenthetical: (Madigan, 2019)
Narrative: Madigan (2019)

Note: If a series has a title, include the volume number and title after the main title in italics. If not, include the volume number in parentheses without italics.

Diagnostic manual DSM ICD

Citing Diagnostic Manuals: DSM-5 and ICD-11

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) - American Psychiatric Association, 2013
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11) - World Health Organization, 2019

Citation Formats

Parenthetical: (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; World Health Organization, 2019)
Narrative: American Psychiatric Association (2013) and World Health Organization (2019)

Rules for Citing Manuals

Cite the first time it is mentioned in the text
Include title and edition when first mentioned, but not in subsequent mentions unless directly supporting a statement
Do not include publisher when author and publisher are the same

Citing Other Reference Works: APA Dictionary of Psychology, Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, and The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

APA Dictionary of Psychology - American Psychological Association (n.d.), retrieved June 14, 2019
Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary - Merriam-Webster (n.d.), retrieved May 5, 2019
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Alta (Ed.) (2019), retrieved [date] or no retrieval date needed for stable versions.

Anthology

Citation Guidelines for Various Texts

Religious Works

Anthology: Gold, M. (Ed.). (1999). The complete social scientist: A Kurt Lewin reader. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10319-000
King James Bible: King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org (Original work published 1769)
The Qur'an: The Qur'an, M. A. S. Abdel Haleem (Trans.). (2004). Oxford University Press.
The Torah: The Torah - The five books of Moses (3rd ed.). (2015). The Jewish Publication Society. (Original work published 1962)

Parenthetical citations: (King James Bible, 1769-2017; The Qur'an, 2004; The Torah, 1962-2015)

Narrative citations: King James Bible (1769-2017), The Qur'an (2004), and The Torah (1962-2015)

Ancient Greek or Roman Works

Aristotle: Aristotle. (1994). Poetics (S. H. Butcher, Trans.). The Internet Classics Archive. http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html (Original work published ca. 350 B.C.E.)

Parenthetical citation: (Shakespeare, 1623 1995)

Narrative citation: Shakespeare (1623 1995)

Additional Information

For more on citing religious works: Section 9.42
To cite a specific book or verse in religious works: Section .1
To quote a passage from religious works: Section .2
For more on citing Shakespeare and other works of classical literature: Section 9.42
To cite a specific act, scene, or line in Shakespeare: Section .1
To quote a passage from Shakespeare: Section .2.

Edited Book Chapters and Entries in Reference Works

Citing Edited Book Chapters and Entries in Reference Works

Edited Book Chapters:

Includes chapters of edited books and works in anthologies
Format, platform, or device not included in the reference
Example: Balsam et al. (2019)
- Title of chapter
- Author(s)
- Date
- In Editor(s) (Eds.), Title of book (pp. page range). Publisher Name.
- DOI or URL
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author et al. (Year)

Entries in Reference Works:

Includes dictionary, thesaurus, and encyclopedia entries
Format, platform, or device not included in the reference
Example: Carcavilla González (2015)
- Title of entry (translate if necessary)
- Author
- Date
- In Editor (Ed.), Title of work (pages). Publisher Name
- DOI or URL
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author (Year)

Chapters in Edited Books:

Special cases: ebooks, audiobooks, edited books in another language, and chapters reprinted from other sources.

eBook Chapters:

Format: ebook (Kindle or other) without a DOI
Example: Tafoya & Del Vecchio (2005)
- Title of chapter
- Author(s)
- Date
- In Editor(s) (Eds.), Title of book (pages). Publisher Name.
- URL (non-database)
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author et al. (Year)

Audiobook Chapters:

Special case for narrator and audiobook notation
Example: Weinstock et al. (2003, read by Narrator Name)
- Title of chapter
- Author(s)
- Date
- In Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pages). Publisher Name.
- DOI or URL
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author et al. (Year)

Chapters in Edited Books in Another Language:

Translate the chapter title and include it in square brackets
Example: Carcavilla González (2015) [Title of Chapter (translated)]
- Title of entry (translate if necessary)
- Author
- Date
- In Editor (Ed.), Title of work (pages). Publisher Name.
- DOI or URL
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author (Year)

Chapters Reprinted from Other Sources:

Original publication details
Example: Sacchett & Humphreys (1992 2004)
- Title of chapter
- Authors
- Date
- In Editor(s) (Eds.), Title of book (pages). Publisher Name.
- Original publication year and title, volume, issue number, and pages if applicable
- DOI or URL
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year original publication) (Year in edited book)
Narrative citation: Author et al. (Year original publication, Year in edited book)

Work in an anthology

Citations:

Lewin's Chapter in Anthology

Author: Lewin, K.
Title: Group decision and social change
Publication: The complete social scientist A Kurt Lewin reader
Editor: M. Gold
Publisher: American Psychological Association
Year: 1999 (original work published in 1948)
DOI or URL: https://doi.org/10.1037/10319-010
Parenthetical citation: (Lewin, 1948 1999)
Narrative citation: Lewin (1948 1999)

Dictionary Entries and Encyclopedia Articles Entry

Topic: Positive transference
Source: American Psychological Association (n.d.)
URL: https://dictionary.apa.org/positive-transference
Parenthetical citation: (American Psychological Association, n.d.)
Narrative citation: American Psychological Association (n.d.)

Entry

Topic: Self-report
Source: Merriam-Webster (n.d.)
URL: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-report
Parenthetical citation: (Merriam-Webster, n.d.)
Narrative citation: Merriam-Webster (n.d.)

Entry

Author: Graham, G.
Title: Behaviorism
Source: The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy
Editor: E. N. Zalta
URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/behaviorism
Parenthetical citation: (Graham, 2019)
Narrative citation: Graham (2019)

Reports and Gray Literature

Type: Online references with no archived versions
References for reports and gray literature follow the same format as journal articles. However, when an online reference work is continuously updated without archiving versions, use "n.d." as the year of publication and include a retrieval date.

Reports

Type: Government reports, technical reports, research reports
Author: Various
Date: Various
Title: Various
Publisher: Various (if not the same as author)
DOI or URL: Provided by the report
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author (Year)

Example:

Report by a government agency or other organization: Australian Government Productivity Commission and New Zealand Productivity Commission (2012), Canada Council for the Arts (2013), and National Cancer Institute (2018).

Reports with individual authors

Author 1 & Author 2 (Year): Title of report
Publisher: Name
DOI or URL: https://doi.org/xxxx or https://xxxxx
Parenthetical citation: (Author 1, Author 2, Year)
Narrative citation: Author 1 and Author 2 (Year)

Report by individual authors at a government agency published as part of a series:

Author 1, Author 2, Author 3 (Year): Title of report
Publisher: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
DOI or URL: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_10/sr10_260.pdf
Parenthetical citation: (Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, Year)
Narrative citation: Author 1, Author 2, and Author 3 (Year)

Report by a task force, working group, or other group:

Author: Name of Group
Year: Year
Title: Title of gray literature
Publisher: Publisher
DOI or URL: Provided by the report or organization
Parenthetical citation: (Author, Year)
Narrative citation: Author (Year)

Code of ethics

Code of Ethics

American Counseling Association (2014), American Nurses Association (2015), American Psychological Association (2017) published their respective codes of ethics.
References should include the organization name, publication year, title, and link.

Grants

Grant Blair (Principal Investigator): Stress, self-regulation and psycho-pathology in middle childhood (2015–2020)
Reference should include the project title, start and end year(s), funding agency, and grant number.

Publications

Issue Brief

Lichtenstein (2013): Profile of veteran business owners - Issue Brief No. 1
Reference should include the issue brief number in parentheses after title.

Policy Brief

Harwell (2018): Don't expect too much - The limited usefulness of common SES measures and a prescription for change - Policy brief
Reference should include the title, publication year, and link.

Press Release

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2019, February 14): FDA authorizes first interoperable insulin pump - Press release
Reference should include the organization name, publication date, title, and link.

Conference Sessions and Presentations

Format: Author, Date, Title, Conference information, DOI or URL
Examples: Fistek et al. (2017), Maddox et al. (2016), Pearson (2018), De Boer & LaFavor (2018)
Include presenter(s) name(s), date, title, conference information, and DOI or URL.

Dissertations and Theses

References for Unpublished Dissertations and Theses

Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation

Author: A. A. Harris
Date: 2014
Title: Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school leaders
Source: Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Virginia.

Reference Format:

Author	Date	Title	Source
Harris, L.	(2014)	Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school leaders	Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Virginia.

Published Dissertations and Theses

Doctoral Dissertation Published in a Database

Author: M. M. Hollander
Date: 2017
Title: Resistance to authority: Methodological innovations and new lessons from the Milgram experiment
Source: Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Reference Format:

Author	Date	Title	Source
Hollander, M. M.	(2017)	Resistance to authority: Methodological innovations and new lessons from the Milgram experiment	Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison. Database: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. URL: https://xxxxx

Master's Thesis Published Online Not in a Database

Author: V. H. Hutcheson
Date: 2012
Title: Dealing with dual differences: Social coping strategies of gifted and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adolescents
Source: Master's thesis, The College of William & Mary. William & Mary Digital Archive. [https://digitalarchive.wm.edu bitstream handle 10288 16594 HutchesonVirginia2012.pdf>]

Reference Format:

Author	Date	Title	Source
Hutcheson, V. H.	(2012)	Dealing with dual differences: Social coping strategies of gifted and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adolescents	Master's thesis, The College of William & Mary. Archive: William & Mary Digital Archive. URL: https://digitalarchive.wm.edu bitstream handle 10288 16594 HutchesonVirginia2012.pdf>

References for Reviews

Book Review in a Journal or Magazine

Title: Details of reviewed work
Source: Title, Volume number(issue), Page numbers
Author: A. A. Reviewer
Date: Year

Reference Format:

Author	Date	Title	Source
Mirabito, L. A., Heck, N. C.	(2016)	Bringing LGBTQ youth theater into the spotlight: Review of the film "The year we Instagram and Telegram: @PDFEnglish"	Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(4), 499–500.

Reference Format:

Author (Reviewer)	Date	Title	Source
Mirabito, L. A., Heck, N. C.	(2016)	Review of the film "The year we Instagram and Telegram: @PDFEnglish" by E. Brodsky, Dir.	Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(4), 499–500.

Book Review in a Newspaper or Website

Title: Title of review
Source: Title, Date, URL
Author: A. A. Reviewer

Reference Format:

Author (Reviewer)	Date	Title	Source
Santos, F.	(2019, January 11)	Reframing refugee children's stories: Review of the book "We are displaced" by M. Yousafzai	The New York Times. URL: https://nyti.ms/2HIgk3

Reference Format:

Author (Reviewer)	Date	Title	Source
Santos, F.	(2019, January 11)	Review of the book "We are displaced" by M. Yousafzai	The New York Times. URL: https://nyti.ms/2HIgk3

TV Series Episode Review Published on a Website

Title: Title of review
Source: Title, Date, URL
Author: A. A. Reviewer

Reference Format:

Author (Reviewer)	Date	Title	Source
Perkins, D.	(2018, February 1)	The good place ends its remarkable second season with irrational hope, unexpected gifts, and a smile: Review of the TV series episode "Somewhere else" by M. Schur, Writer & Dir.	A.V. Club. URL: https://www.avclub.com/the-good-place-ends-its-remarkable-second-season-with-i -1822649316

Reference Format:

Author (Reviewer)	Date	Title	Source
Perkins, D.	(2018, February 1)	Review of the TV series episode "Somewhere else" by M. Schur, Writer & Dir.	A.V. Club. URL: https://www.avclub.com/the-good-place-ends-its-remarkable-second-season-with-i -1822649316

Unpublished Works and Informally Published Works

Unpublished and Informally Published Works

Unpublished Works

In progress, not yet submitted or accepted for publication
Description of status in square brackets: manuscript, report etc.
Include author, date, title, source information
Department or university as source if known
Do not use "in preparation," "submitted," or "submitted for publication" in the date element

Example: Author A. A., Unpublished manuscript. Department. [2020]. Title of the work.

Informally Published Works

Available from archives, preprint repositories, personal websites etc.
Use final published version when available
Update references before publication or submission
Description of status in square brackets if necessary
Include DOI or URL

Example: Author A. A., [2020]. Title of the work. Name of Database. https://doi.org/xxxxx

Unpublished Manuscripts

Only in authors' possession
Treat as informally published
Include department and institution where work was produced if possible

Example: O Shea, M., [2018]. Understanding proactive behavior in the workplace as a function of gender. Department of Management, University of Kansas.

Manuscripts Submitted for Publication

Not yet accepted or published
Do not list journal name
Treat as informally published if available online

Example: Lippincott, T., Poindexter, E. K., [2019]. Emotion recognition as a function of facial cues: Implications for practice. Department of Psychology, University of Washington.

Informally Published Works from Preprint Archives or Institutional Repositories

Not peer-reviewed or may be final manuscripts accepted for publication
Include document numbers if applicable

Example: Leuker, C., Samartidis, L., Hertwig, R., Pleskac, T. J., [2018]. When money talks: Judging risk and coercion in high-paying clinical trials. PsyArXiv. <https://doi.org/ 10.17605/OSF.IO/9P7CB>

Stults-Kolehmainen, M. A., Sinha, R., [2015]. The effects of stress on physical activity and exercise. PubMed Central. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3894304

Data Sets Software and Tests

Data Sets and References

Importance of Data Citation

Supports discovery and reuse of data for better science
Recognizes data as scientific record, acknowledges creators' contributions
In-text citation and reference list entry required:
- Secondary analyses of publicly archived data
- Own data presented for first time in current work

Data Set Template for References

Component	Example
Author	Author, A.
Date	(2020).
Title	Title of data set (Version 1.2)
Publisher	Publisher Name.
DOI or URL	https://doi.org/xxxxx

Data Set References Examples

Component	Example
Author	A., Author, B. B.
Date	(2015–2019).
Title	Title of data set Unpublished raw data . Description of untitled data set Unpublished raw data .
Publisher	Source of Unpublished Data.
DOI or URL	https://xxxxx

Additional Examples with Existing Data Sets

Component	Example
Author	D Sou a, A. and Wiseheart, M.
Date	(2018).
Title	Cognitive effects of music and dance training in children
Publisher	ICPSR
DOI or URL	https://doi.org/xxxxx

Component	Example
Author	National Center for Education Statistics
Date	(2016).
Title	Fast Response Survey System (FRSS) Teachers use of educational technology in U.S. public schools, 2009
Publisher	-
DOI or URL	https://xxxxx

Component	Example
Author	Pew Research Center
Date	(2018).
Title	American trends panel Wave 26
Publisher	-
DOI or URL	https://xxxxx

Narrative Citations

Alternative to parenthetical citations: D Sou a and Wiseheart (2018), National Center for Education Statistics (2016), and Pew Research Center (2018)

Unpublished raw data

Citing Unpublished Raw Data

Introduction

Raw data from Baer (2015) and Oregon Youth Authority (2011)
Description of untitled data set in square brackets

Citation Format for Software and Mobile Apps

Common software and apps do not require citations
For limited distribution, use template: Source | Author | Date | Title | Publisher | URL
For tests, scales, inventories, or database records, see section below

Citing Software and Mobile Apps of Limited Distribution

Use template: Source | Author | Date | Title | Publisher | URL
Provide version number if relevant
For apparatuses or equipment with software, list both in description

Example

|Author, A. A.| (2020). Title of work (Version 1.2) Mobile app. Publisher Name or App Store. https://xxxxx|
|Author, B. B.| Computer software. |App Store. |
|Name of Group.| Title of work (Version 4.6)| Google Play Store. |

Citing Tests, Scales, and Inventories

Cite supporting literature (manual or journal article) if available
If not, cite the test itself or database record

Citation Format for Tests, Scales, Inventories, or Test Database Records

Use template: Source | Author | Date | Title | Database | DOI or URL

Examples

|Author, A. A.,| (2020). Title of the Test. Test https://doi.org xxxxx|
|Author, B. B.| Title of the Test Database record. PsycTESTS. https://doi.org/10.1037/t66267-000 |

Citing Test Databases

Cite database records if unique information is used
Otherwise, cite supporting literature

Examples

|Author, A. A.,| (2020). Title of the Test. Test https://doi.org xxxxx|
|Alonso-Tapia, J., Nieto, C., Merino-Te edor, E., Huertas, J. A., Rui , M. (2018). Situated Goals Questionnaire for University Students (SGQ-U, CMS-U) Database record. PsycTESTS. https://doi.org/10.1037/t66267-000|

Audiovisual Media

Audiovisual Media

Definition and Categories

Consists of both visual and audio components (films, TV shows, YouTube videos)
Audio components only (music, speech recordings)
Visual components only (artwork, PowerPoint slides, photographs)
Formats for references presented together here

Formats for Audiovisual References

Depends on whether the work stands alone or is part of a greater whole
Examples: films, TV series, podcasts, music albums, artwork, YouTube videos

Determining Author

Film: Director
TV series: Executive producer(s)
TV series episode: Writer and director of episode
Podcast: Host or executive producer
Podcast episode: Host of episode
Webinar: Instructor
Classical music album or song: Composer
Modern music album or song: Recording artist
Artwork: Artist
Online streaming video: Person or group who uploaded the video
Photograph: Photographer

Describing Audiovisual Work

Provide title and publisher in reference brackets
For films, TV series, or podcasts: provide production company name
For music albums: provide label name
For artwork: provide museum name and location
For online streaming video: provide URL

Constructing References for Audiovisual Media that Stand Alone

Category	Information
Author	Director, D.D. (for films) or the relevant creator for other media types
Date	Year of production/release
Title	Title of work
Publisher	Production company for films, TV series, or podcasts; label for music albums; museum name and location for artwork; name of streaming video site for online streaming videos
URL	Link to the audiovisual work (if applicable)

Constructing References for Audiovisual Media that are Part of a Greater Whole

Category	Information
Author	Writer, W.W. (for TV series episodes) or the relevant creator for other media types
Date	Year of production/release of the episode or recording
Title	Title of episode or song
Publisher	Title of TV series, podcast, or album
URL	Link to the greater whole (if applicable)

Audiovisual Works

Audiovisual Works

Film or Video

Type of audiovisual work
Examples: "One flew over the cuckoo's nest" (Forman, 1975), "Accelerated experiential dynamic psychotherapy (AEDP) supervision" (Fosha & Levenson, 2017), and "The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring" (Jackson, 2001)
Citation format: Director's name (Year) Title [Format], Production Company.
Flexible citation for unknown director roles

Film or video in another language

Example: "Au revoir les enfants" (Malle, 1987) [Goodbye children]
Include translation in square brackets if title is in a different language.

TV Series

Type of audiovisual work
Example: "The Wire" (Simon et al., 2002–2008)
Citation format: Executive Producers' names (Year–Year) Title, Production Company.

Narrative citation: Simon et al. (2002–2008)

Citation Guidelines

Separating Years in Citations

Narrative citation: Simon et al. (2002–2008)
Replace second year with "present" if still airing: (2015–present)

TV Series Episodes or Webisodes

Narrative citation: Barris, K. (Writer Director). (2017, January 11). Lemons (Season 3, Episode 12) TV series episode. In K. Barris, J. Groff, A. Anderson, E. B. Dobbins, L. Fishburne, H. Sugland (Executive Producers), Black-ish. Wilmore Films Artists First Cinema Gypsy Productions ABC Studios.
Parenthetical citation: (Barris, 2017) or (Oakley et al., 1995)

TED Talks

Narrative citation: Giertz, S. (2018, April). Why you should make useless things Video. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/simone_giert/why_you_should_make_useless_things
Parenthetical citation: (Giertz, 2018) or (TED, 2012)
If speaker is not listed as the author, integrate their name into the narrative.

Webinar

Author: Goldberg, J. F.
Title: Evaluating adverse drug effects Webinar
Publisher: American Psychiatric Association
Link: https://education.psychiatry.org/Users/ProductDetails.aspx?ActivityID=6172

YouTube or Other Streaming Videos

Author: Cutts, S. (2017, November 24) or Fogarty, M. (2016, September 30) or University of Oxford (2018, December 6)
Title: Happiness Video, How to diagram a sentence (absolute basics), or How do geckos walk on water Video
Publisher: Vimeo or YouTube
Link: https://vimeo.com/244405542 or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qm1xGfO_Jc8
Parenthetical citation: Cutts, 2017, Fogarty, 2016, University of Oxford, 2018

Narrative Citations

Barris (2017) and Oakley et al. (1995)
Giertz (2018) and TED (2012)

Quotations from Videos or TED Talks

See Section 2. for citing quotations from videos or TED Talks.

Audio Works

Audiovisual Media

Music albums:

Bach, J. S. (2010). The Brandenburg concertos [Academy of St Martin in the Fields]. Decca. (1721)
Bowie, D. (2016). Blackstar. Columbia.

Parenthetical citations: (Bach, 1721/2010; Bowie, 2016)

Narrative citations: Bach (1721/2010) and Bowie (2016)

Single song or track:

Beepoven, L. van. (2012). Symphony No. 3 in E-flat major [Staatskapelle Dresden]. On Beepoven Complete symphonies. Brilliant Classics. (1804)
Beyoncé. (2016). Formation. On Lemonade. Parkwood Columbia.
Childish Gambino. (2018). This is America. mcDJ RCA.
Lamar, K. (2017). Humble. On Damn. Aftermap Entertainment Interscope Records Top Dawg Entertainment.

Parenthetical citations: (Beethoven, 1804/2012; Beyoncé, 2016; Childish Gambino, 2018; Lamar, 2017)

Narrative citations: Beethoven (1804/2012), Beyoncé (2016), Childish Gambino (2018), and Lamar (2017)

Podcast:

Vedantam, S. (Host). (2015–present). Hidden brain. NPR.

Podcast episode:

Glass, I. (Host). (2011, August 12). Amusement park (No. 443). This American life. WBE Chicago. [URL] (Glass, 2011)

Speech audio recording:

King, M. L., Jr. (1963, August 28). I have a dream. American Rhetoric. [URL] (King, 1963)

Visual Works:

Artwork in museum or on museum website:

Delacroix, E. (1826–1827). Faust attempts to seduce Marguerite [The Louvre, Paris, France]. Wood, G. (1930). American gothic [Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States]. [URL]

Parenthetical citations: (Delacroix, 1826–1827; Wood, 1930)

Narrative citations: Delacroix (1826–1827) and Wood (1930)

Clip art or stock image:

GDJ. (2018). Neural network deep learning prismatic [Openclipart]. (GDJ, 2018)

Infographic:

Rossman, J., Palmer, R. (2015). Sorting through our space [World Science Festival]. (Rossman & Palmer, 2015)

Map:

Cable, D. (2013). The racial dot map [University of Virginia, Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service]. Google. (n.d.). Google Maps directions for driving from La Paz, Bolivia, to Lima, Peru. [URL] (Cable, 2013; Google, n.d.)

Narrative citations: Cable (2013) and Google (n.d.)

Photograph:

McCurry, S. (1985). Afghan girl [National Geographic]. [URL] (McCurry, 1985)
Rinaldi, J. (2016). Photograph series of a boy who finds his footing after abuse by those he trusted [The Pulitzer Prizes]. [URL] (Rinaldi, 2016)

Parenthetical citations: (McCurry, 1985; Rinaldi, 2016)

Narrative citations: McCurry (1985) and Rinaldi (2016)

PowerPoint slides or lecture notes:

Canan, E., Vasilev, J. (2019, May 22). Lecture notes on resource allocation [Department of Management Control and Information Systems, University of Chile]. [URL] (Canan & Vasilev, 2019)

Online Media

Citing Social Media Content

General Guidelines:

Cite content directly from social media sites
Include text of post up to first 2 words, and presence of audiovisuals in square brackets
Retain original formatting (spelling, capitalization, hashtags, links, emojis)
Count emojis as one word for word count

Social Media Sites:

Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, Instagram, Tumblr, LinkedIn, etc.

Citation Format:

Source	Social Media Site	URL
APA Education	Twitter	https://twitter.com/apaeducation/status/1012810490530140161
Badlands National Park	Twitter	<https://twitter.com BadlandsNPS status 968196500412133379>
BettyMWhite	Twitter	<https://twitter.com BettyMWhite status 1009951892846227456>
Gaiman	Facebook	http://bit.ly/2JQxPAD
National Institute of Mental Health	Facebook	http://bit.ly/321Qstq
News From Science	Facebook	https://www.facebook.com/ScienceNOW/videos/10155508587605108

Tips:

Replicate emojis if possible
Retrieve and include date of access for social media profiles
Substitute tab name (e.g., "Lists" or "Moments") for "Tweets" in the reference
Use parenthetical or narrative citations

Additional Information:

Twitter profile: APA Style (n.d.) <https://twitter.com APA Style>
Facebook post: Gaiman (2018), National Institute of Mental Health (2018), News From Science (2018)

Facebook page

Social Media References

Facebook Page

Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (n.d.)
Format: Facebook page
Reference: (Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, n.d.)
Includes Instagram examples: photo or video, highlight

Online Forum Post

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2018)
Format: Online forum post
Reference: (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2018)

Webpages and Websites

General Mention

Avramova, N. (2019) and Bologna, C. (2018)
Format: Webpage on a news website
Reference: Avramova (2019) and Bologna (2018)

Webpage on a Website with Group Author

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018) and World Health Organization (2018)
Format: Webpage on a website
Reference: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018) and World Health Organization (2018)
Omit site name if the same as author

Webpage on a Website with Individual Author

Martin Lillie, C. M. (2016)
Format: Webpage on a website
Reference: Martin Lillie (2016)

Webpage on a Website with No Date

Boddy et al. (n.d.) and National Nurses United (n.d.)
Format: Webpage on a website
Reference: Boddy et al. (n.d.) and National Nurses United (n.d.)
Determine the author from context or acknowledgments page

Webpage on a Website with Retrieval Date

U.S. Census Bureau (n.d.)
Format: Webpage on a website
Reference: U.S. Census Bureau (n.d.)
Include retrieval date due to changing content and no archiving.

LEGAL REFERENCES

Legal References in APA Style

Differences between APA and Legal References

Existing legal references require few changes for APA Style reference list entry
Parallel citations required for works with multiple citations
General guidelines for creating APA Style legal references

General Guidelines

In-text citation creation from reference list entry
Ensure accuracy and completeness of legal references
Consult Bluebook, law librarians, or law school websites for help

APA vs Legal Reference Order

APA: author, date, title, source
Legal: title, source, date

General Forms

Codified legislation: publication name and date
Uncodified legislation: identifying label
Additional descriptive information (consult Bluebook)

Common Legal Reference Abbreviations

Word or phrase	Abbreviation
Part of government
	Congress
	House of Representatives
	Senate
Type of legal material
	Regulation
	Resolution
Section of legal material
	Section
	Sections
	Number
And following	et seq
Reporter source of federal legal material
	United States Reports
	Federal Reporter
	Federal Reporter, Second Series
	Federal Reporter, Third Series
	Federal Supplement
	Federal Supplement, Second Series
	Federal Supplement, Third Series
United States Code	U.S.C.
Congressional Record	Cong. Rec.
Federal Register	F.R.

In-Text Citations of Legal Materials

In-Text Citations for Legal Materials

Format:

Approximately the same format as other APA references
Title and year are the main components

Legal References

Cases or Court Decisions
- Title or name of the case (e.g., Brown v. Board of Education)
- Citation: volume, reporter, page, jurisdiction, date
- Jurisdiction in parentheses (e.g., U.S. district court)
- RL (optional)
Federal Court Decisions U.S. Supreme Court
- Reference list: Name v. Name, Volume U.S. Page (Year)
- URL
- Parenthetical citation: (Name v. Name, Year)
- Narrative citation: Name v. Name (Year) US Sup. Ct. U.S. Circuit Court
- Reference list: Name v. Name, Volume F. or F.2d, F.3d Page (Court Year)
- URL
- Parenthetical citation: (Name v. Name, Year)
- Narrative citation: Name v. Name (Year) US Ct. App. U.S. District Court
- Reference list: Name v. Name, Volume F. Supp. Page (Court Year)
- URL
- Parenthetical citation: (Name v. Name, Year)
- Narrative citation: Name v. Name (Year) US Dist. Ct.
State Court Decisions
- Reference list: Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Year)
- URL
- Parenthetical citation: (Name v. Name, Year)
- Narrative citation: Name v. Name (Year)
Examples U.S. Supreme Court
- Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). URL: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 U.S. Circuit Court
- Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. (2015). URL: https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf State Court Decision
- Name v. Name, 95 Cal. Rptr. 3d 876 (Cal. Ct. App. 2010). URL: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=581842557239892595

Legal References Examples

Title and year serve the same purpose as in-text citations for all reference types
Legal references include the citation (volume, reporter, page, jurisdiction, date) to help locate the source
Format varies based on the type of legal material (federal or state court decisions)
Optional RL can aid readers in retrieval but is not strictly required for legal citations.

U.S. circuit court case

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (*1991*)

U.S. Circuit Court case
Volume: 951 F.2d, page 1128
Year: 1991
URL: https://open.urist.org/951/f2d/1128
Topic: Birth defects from medication use during pregnancy

Burriola v. Greater Toledo YMCA (*2001*)

U.S. District Court case
Volume: 133 F. Supp. 2d, page 1034
Year: 2001
URL: https://law.ustia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/133/1034/2293141
Topic: Accommodations for children with special needs at public after-school care providers under the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990

Durflinger v. Artiles (*1981, 1984*)

U.S. District Court case with appeal
Decided by: Federal district court (1981), Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals (1984)
References: 563 F. Supp. 322, aff'd 727 F.2d 888
URL: https://open.urist.org/727/f2d/888/durflinger-v-artiles
Topic: Third parties and involuntarily committed psychiatric patients in state custody

Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (*1976*)

State Supreme Court case
References: 17 Cal.3d 425, 131 Cal. Rptr. 14, 551 P.2d 334
URL: https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/torts/torts-keyed-to-dobbs/the-duty-to-protect-from-third-persons/tarasoff-v-regents-of-university-of-california
Topic: Duty of mental health professionals to protect individuals from third person threats of bodily harm

Texas v. Morales (*1992*)

State court case
Volume: 826 S.W.2d, page 201
Year: 1992
URL: N/A
Topic: Criminalization of consensual same-sex activity among adults in private under the Texas Constitution.

Statutes Laws and Acts

Introduction

A statute is a law or act passed by a legislative body at both federal and state levels
Published in compilations such as the United States Code (U.S.C.) or Florida Statutes

Federal Statutes

Codified in the U.S.C. under titles
Reference list entry: Name of Act, Title Source Section Number (Year). URL
In-text citation: (Name of Act, Year) or Name of Act (Year)
Examples: Americans With Disabilities Act (1990), Civil Rights Act (1964), Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act (2009)

State Statutes

Published in state-specific compilations, organized into titles or chapters/articles
Reference list entry: Name of Act, Title Source Section Number (Year). URL
Parenthetical citation: (Name of Act, Year)
Narrative citation: Name of Act (Year)
Examples: Patsy Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act (1972), Florida Mental Health Act (1971 2009)

Citing Statutes

Include the name, title source, section number, and year of publication in references
In-text citations use the popular or official name of the act and the year of publication
Year refers to the year of publication, not necessarily the year passed or amended
Use abbreviations or symbols as shown in the Bluebook for state codes and titles.

Legislative Materials

Legislative Materials

Includes federal testimony, hearings, bills, resolutions, reports, and related documents
Bills and resolutions that become law: statutes (Section 11.5)

Federal Testimony

Title of testimony, Congress and year
URL (optional)
Parenthetical citation: (Title of Testimony, Year)
Narrative citation: Title of Testimony (Year)

Full Federal Hearing

Title of hearing, Congress and year
URL
Parenthetical citation: (Title of Hearing, Year)
Narrative citation: Title of Hearing (Year)

Unenacted Federal Bill or Resolution

Title (if relevant), bill number, Congress and year
URL
Parenthetical citation: (Title of Act/Resolution, Year)
Narrative citation: Title of Act/Resolution (Year)

Enacted Simple or Concurrent Federal Resolution

For Senate: S. Res. xxx, Congress, Cong. Rec. Page (Year) (enacted). URL
Parenthetical citation: (S. Resolution xxx, Year)
Narrative citation: Senate Resolution xxx (Year)
For House of Representatives: H.R. Res. xxx, Congress, Cong. Rec. Page (Year) (enacted). URL

Federal Report

For Senate: S. Rep. No. xxx-xxx (Year). URL
Parenthetical citation: (Senate Report No. xxx-xxx, Year)
Narrative citation: Senate Report No. xxx-xxx (Year)
For House of Representatives: H.R. Rep. No. xxx-xxx (Year). URL

Administrative and Executive Materials

Includes rules and regulations, advisory opinions, and executive orders. (Not covered in the text)

Federal regulation codified

Federal Regulations

Published in Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.)
Reference format: Title or Number, Volume C.F.R. xxx (Year). URL
Example: Protection of Human Subjects, 45 C.F.R. 46 (2009)
If not yet codified, it will appear in Federal Register (F.R.)
Indicate proposed regulation with "F.R." instead of "C.F.R"
Example: Defining and Delimiting the Exemptions for Executive, Administrative, Professional, Outside Sales and Computer Employees, 81 F.R. 32391 (proposed May 23, 2016) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. 541).

Executive Orders

Reported in Title of the Code of Federal Regulations, so "C.F.R." is always included
Reference format: Exec. Order No. xxxxx, 3 C.F.R. Page (Year). URL
Example: Exec. Order No. 13,676, 3 C.F.R. 294 (2014)

Patents

Reference format: Inventor(s), A.A. (Year Patent Issued). Title of patent (U.S. Patent No. xxxxxx). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. URL
Example: Hiremath, S.C., Kumar, S., Lu, F., Salehi, A. (2016). Using metaphors to present concepts across different intellectual domains (U.S. Patent No. 9,367,592). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parserpatentnumber9367592

Constitutions and Charters

No citation necessary for whole constitution
Create reference list entries and in-text citations for articles and amendments of constitutions
Reference format: U.S. Const. art. xx, x or State Const. art. xx, x
Example: 23 Article of the U.S. Constitution - U.S. Const. art. I, 3; Parenthetical citation: (U.S. Const. art. I, 3)
Narrative citation: Article I, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

Citing Constitutional Amendments

Amendment to U.S. Constitution: U.S. Const. amend. xxx.
Parenthetical citation: (U.S. Const. amend. I)
Narrative citation: Amendment I to the U.S. Constitution
Repealed amendments include a year in reference: U.S. Const. amend. xxx (repealed Year)

State Constitutions

Cited similarly as federal constitutions
No date needed unless amendment is repealed

27. U.S. Bill of Rights

Consists of the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution
Citation: (U.S. Const. amend. I– ) or Amendments I– to the U.S. Constitution

28. Charter of the United Nations

Citation template: U.N. Charter art. xx, para. xx.
Example: U.N. Charter art. 1, para. 3

Treaties and International Conventions

Name of treaty, convention, or agreement, year, URL
In text: name of treaty/convention and year
Parenthetical citation: (Name of Treaty or Convention, Year)
Narrative citation: Name of Treaty or Convention (Year)

Preparing for Publication

Adapting dissertations/theses into journal articles
Preparing manuscripts for submission
Selecting appropriate journals for publication
Navigating editorial publication process

Ethical and Efficient Manuscript Handling

Authors, editors, publishers share responsibility
Copyright and permission guidelines for reprinting or adapting works
Writing copyright attributions
Steps to take during and after publication.

Publication Process

Preparing for Publication

Preparing a Dissertation or Thesis for Publication

Two Strategies for Converting a Dissertation or Thesis into a Journal Article

Strategy 1: Multiple-Paper Format

Final product consists of papers formatted for journal submission
Papers are conceptually similar, but stand alone as research reports
Benefits: time and effort saved by having paper already formatted
Consult university editorial office for guidelines

Strategy 2: Reformatting to Fit Journal Scope and Style

Adjust length, references, sections, etc. to fit journal requirements
Eliminate extraneous content, provide necessary information
Consult APA Style website for more information

Length

Shorten overall paper length
Eliminate text within sections or entire sections
Narrow focus to specific topic for each paper

References

Include only most pertinent and recent references
Ensure citations contribute to understanding of research topic

Introduction Section

Eliminate extraneous content
Describe research questions, aims, or hypotheses

Method Section

Provide necessary information for readers
Refer readers to previous works or supplemental materials

Results and Discussion Sections

Report relevant results only
Adjust discussion accordingly
Ensure findings answer original research questions

Tables and Figures

Make sure essential and do not reproduce text content

Preparing for Publication: Additional Tips

Look at articles in field/relevant journals for structure and focus
Review submitted article alongside advisor or serve as reviewer for student competition
Request input of coauthors during conversion process

Selecting a Journal for Publication

Selecting a Journal for Publication

Early Step in Writing Process

Choices made during this process can impact the form of the manuscript

Factors to Consider

Journal Length Requirements
- Some publish brief reports, others only longer articles
Audience Reach
- Wide vs. specialized
Topical Areas
- Reflect on journals you cite and their themes
Open Access Policy
Impact Factor
Time to Publication
Citation Style

Journal Selection Process

Look at reference lists of published articles in your field
Consult colleagues and co-authors for recommendations
Contact journal editors to ensure topic fit

Narrowing Down Choices: Appropriateness and Prestige

Appropriateness:

Ensure research is suitable for the chosen venue
- Consider populations, methods, themes, article features

Prestige:

Publication in a prestigious journal can benefit your career
Multiple high-quality journals may be appropriate
Assess prestige through impact factor, rejection rate, and citations

Additional Considerations

Time to first response or publication
Publishing costs
Journal for which you or colleagues have been reviewers
International scope or readership
Open access status

Avoiding Predatory Journals

Avoiding Predatory Journals: Guidance for Editors and Authors

Warning on Predatory Journals

Editors and authors must abide by ethical standards
Predatory journals engage in unethical or negligent practices

Characteristics of Predatory Journals Informal solicitation

Aggressive solicitation via email
Poorly written emails with exclamation points
Editor identified but check editor's website for confirmation

Hidden publisher or website

Purposefully excluded from communications
Check journal online and review its website

Lack of rigorous evaluation

Omit peer review or use cursory processes
Lack editing, archiving, indexing services
Low-quality papers

Lack of transparency

Difficult to locate information about editorial process or publishing operations

Poor reputation

Unprofessional website and lack contact information
Impact factor questionable or asterisked as informal estimate

Nonstandard submission processes

Use generic online peer review system
Allow manuscript submission via email

Lack of indexing in databases

Not indexed in trusted research databases like PsycINFO

Evaluating Journal Quality

High-quality periodicals have digital object identifiers (DOIs) and ISSN
Well-defined scope, clear peer review processes, correction, retraction policies
Identified publisher and editorial board composed of competent individuals
Appropriate fees clearly posted on the journal's website

Resources for Vetting Journals

World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) guidance
Shamseer et al. evidence-based standards
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and Quality Open Access Market (QOAM) white lists
Think. Check. Submit. website for checklist and free resources
Open Scholarship Initiative (OSI) for valuable information on predatory publishing
Contact university librarian for help in evaluating journals.

Importance of Diligence in Evaluating a Potential Journal

Protect the integrity of research by being diligent in evaluating a potential journal before deciding to submit an article for publication.

Understanding the Editorial Publication Process

Understanding the Editorial Publication Process

Manuscript Submission and Progression

Beginning of editorial process: author submits manuscript to a peer-reviewed journal
Potential paths from submission to publication: Figure 12.1
Scholarly journals: original, primary publications not previously published
Peer-reviewed literature: builds the field's knowledge with significant contributions

Confidentiality and Peer Review

Reviewers carefully assess manuscripts for originality, rigor, and significance
Submitted manuscript considered a confidential document during review process
Publisher policies regarding ethics and manuscript sharing (Sections 1.1, 1.2)

Roles of Editors

Editorial Hierarchy

Journal lead editor/editor-in-chief: final authority on publication decisions
Associate editors: responsible for specific content areas or portions of submissions
Consulting and advisory editors: review manuscripts, advise on conflicting reviews
Ad hoc reviewers: provide feedback to editors or associate editors

Correspondence with Editors

Address correspondence to the editor with whom you've been communicating
Lead editor may make decisions different from reviewers/associate editor recommendations.

Flowchart of Manuscript Progression From Submission to Publication

Author submits manuscript to journal
Editor decision a. Manuscript rejected outright b. Manuscript undergoes peer review
Manuscript rejected or requires revisions a. Author must choose another journal b. Author revises and resubmits according to feedback i. Additional revision needed
1. Author completes publication forms and reviews proofs
Manuscript accepted
Additional revision or peer review required
Author completes Publication forms and reviews proofs

Peer Review Process

Peer Review Process

Understanding the Role of Peer Review

Importance in editorial decision making
Role of action editor and editor-in-chief

Reviewer Role

Selection process: knowledgeable scholars, familiarity with topic or controversy, balance of perspectives
Limitations identification
Scholarly input into editorial decision
Decision ultimate responsibility of editor

Providing Reviewers for Manuscript Submission

Importance of careful selection
Consideration of researchers' consistency with topic, similar area of study, and scholarly record
Journal's masked review policy

Masked Review Process

Hidden identities of authors and reviewers
Author guidelines for manuscript formatting
Variations in masking: both ways, one way, or unmasked

Timing of Peer Review

Length and complexity dependent
Editor's determination and evaluation by reviewers
Formal peer review almost always required
Approximately 2 to 3 months process
Author follow up if no decision is made after 3 months.

Manuscript Decisions

Manuscript Decisions and Process

Manuscript decisions based on scholarly quality, importance, and appropriateness
Editor's responsibility for acceptance, revision, or rejection
Possible differences between editor's decision and reviewers' recommendations

Acceptance

Enters production phase: copyediting, typesetting
Minimal content changes allowed (except as recommended by the copyeditor)
Required paperwork completion (copyright transfer, disclosures, permissions)

Invitation to Revise and Resubmit

Manuscripts with potential for eventual publication but not ready for final acceptance
Substantial revisions needed (additional data, experiments, analyses, shortening)
Not a guarantee of eventual publication by that journal
May have time constraints or change in editors

Review Process

Editors may request additional material from authors
Additional reviewers may be solicited if expertise needed or previous reviewer unavailable
Explanation provided for required revisions to authors
Authors expected to respond thoughtfully and judiciously
Response to reviewers includes addressing all critiques and rationale for decisions not to make changes
Providing a response facilitates the review process and helps editor decide on publication

Brief Report Option

Some journals offer authors the opportunity to revise paper into brief reports
Limited scope, novel findings that need further replication, or replications and extensions of prior published work

Rejection

Manuscripts rejected due to: falling outside coverage domain, severe flaws, or limited contribution to field
Editor may reject outright without review if not appropriate for journal or unlikely to be evaluated favorably during peer review process
Manuscript that has been rejected by a journal may not be resubmitted without invitation from the editor.

Manuscript Preparation

Manuscript Preparation

Preparing Manuscript for Submission:

Follow APA Style guidelines (Chapter, reporting standards)
Check specific journal submission guidelines
Utilize author services and support for help
Keep updated with current guidelines

Using an Online Submission Portal:

Electronic submission through portal
Instructions for using submission system
Upload manuscript file and cover letter
Additional files may be required

Manuscript File:

Consists of title page, abstract, text, reference list, tables, figures, footnotes, appendices
Some journals require separate files for title page, figures
Supplemental materials should be reviewed carefully before submission

Cover Letter File:

Required by some journals
Contains information for the editor (current editor's name, specific instructions)

Additional Information

Submitting a Manuscript for Publication

Additional Information

Required information: article title and abstract, byline and affiliations, contact info, word count or page count, number of tables and figures, keywords, potential reviewers
Specific requirements vary per journal and publisher
Ensure all information is provided through submission portal

Writing a Cover Letter

Include requested information: title, authors, assurances of authorship agreement, contact info, conflicts of interest, request for masked review, ethical compliance, permissions for copyrighted material
Follow journal's specific policies on cover letters
Nonadherence to submission instructions can delay the review process

Submission Instructions

Provide manuscript title and authors
Confirm authorship agreement and order
Designate corresponding author for all correspondence
Disclose existence of related manuscripts under consideration
Declare potential conflicts of interest or activities that may influence research
Request masked review if an option
Verify ethical standards compliance (Institutional Review Board, animal care and use committee)
Submit Certificate of Compliance With APA Ethical Principles Form for human or animal studies
All authors must submit the Full Disclosure of Interests Form for APA journals

During Publication

Correspond with editor regarding any substantive corrections, changes in contact info, etc. during submission and publication process
Include complete manuscript title, authors' names, and manuscript number in all correspondence
Following publication, the corresponding author serves as main point of contact for questions about the published article.

Certifying Ethical Requirements

Authors are responsible for demonstrating compliance with ethical standards governing research conduct and scholarly publication
Provide proof of IRB/IACUC approval for human or animal studies, or describe process if it differs from IRB evaluation
Submit Certificate of Compliance With APA Ethical Principles Form for human or animal studies in APA journals
Disclose potential conflicts of interest in author note
All authors must submit the Full Disclosure of Interests Form for APA journals
Manuscripts are checked for plagiarism using detection software.

Copyright and Permission Guidelines

Copyright and Permission Guidelines

General Guidelines for Reprinting or Adapting Materials

Authors must provide a copyright attribution and reference list entry for certain types of works
Reprinting: reproducing material exactly as it appeared originally
Adapting: modifying material for new purpose
Copyright law requirements, not specific to APA Style

Materials That Require a Copyright Attribution (may also require permission) Figures, Tables, and Other Images

Most visual displays require copyright attribution
Depending on the work's place of publication and copyright status, permission may or may not be required
Difficult to establish copyright ownership for internet images
No permission needed for data from open research databases

Data

Published or unpublished data require attribution and permission to reproduce
Reconfigured or reanalyzed data do not require permission, cite with regular author date citation

Test and Scale Items, Questionnaires, Vignettes, etc.

Reprinting or adapting from copyrighted tests requires attribution and permission
Obtaining permissions can be difficult and time-consuming
Changes to measures should be made in consultation with developers
Be cautious about reprinting or adapting test materials for test security reasons
Long quotations require permission and copyright attribution, definition varies by copyright holder

Special Cases

Commercial stock photography: requires a license from vendor unless Creative Commons or public domain
Clip art: most do not require permission but may need a copyright attribution

Process of Understanding Copyright Status

Determine if material requires a copyright attribution and permission based on type
Identify copyright status and understand implications for intended use
Determine if fair use applies (Section 12.17)
Secure permission if necessary from copyright holder
Write the copyright attribution in APA Style

Formatting Copyright Attributions

For figures, tables, and images: include source title, author, publication date, figure number, and publisher name in copyright attribution
For data: include author, year of publication or collection, dataset name, version, and any necessary permissions granted.

Copyright Status

Copyright Status

Understanding Copyright

Determines usage rights for papers
Indicated on article's first page, book's copyright page, images, websites

Common Copyright Statuses

Standard Copyright

Word "copyright" or symbol
May require permission for older works

Creative Commons Copyright

Indicated by "Creative Commons" or "CC"
Allows reprinting/adapting with attribution
Specific terms vary (check license)

Public Domain

Works not bound by copyright
Can be reprinted and adapted freely
Assumed to be copyrighted unless stated otherwise
Include works produced by U.S. government
Complex laws regarding expired copyrights, consult a librarian

No Copyright Indicated

Treat as copyrighted
U.S. law states work is copyrighted once fixed in tangible form
Example: classroom assignments owned by students

Permission and Fair Use

Permission and Fair Use

Permission not required for works with Creative Commons licenses or public domain works, but attribution is necessary
Permission may not be needed for copyrighted works based on nature of publication and fair use concept
Scholarly works: no permission required under certain conditions
- Publisher owns copyright
- Use is scholarly comment, noncommercial research, or educational
- Full credit given to author and publisher
- Maximum of 3 figures/tables or fewer than 800 words of text
Fair use: reprinting or adapting a copyrighted work without permission under certain circumstances
- For academic purposes
- Represents facts or data
- Small in relation to the entire work
- Will not hurt the market
Permission required for photographs of identifiable people, need signed release

Securing Permission

Request permission from copyright holder for all formats and subsequent/foreign-language editions
Publishers have various ways to request permission (websites, email, fax, mail)
Permission request should include details about the material and nature of reuse
Publishers may require permission from original author and contingent on copyright attribution and payment of fee
Allow ample time for securing permission
Provide written permission, copies with accepted manuscript, complete Permissions Alert Form, and include copyright attribution in manuscript.

An APA Style copyright attribution

APA Style Copyright Attributions

Overview

Information for creating APA style copyright attributions
Contains details from reference list entry
Order and additional information about material's copyright and permission status

Components of a Copyright Attribution

Reprinted or adapted: "From" for reprintings, "Adapted from" for adaptations
Title, author, year of publication, source of the material
Copyright status: copyright year and name of copyright holder
Creative Commons license or public domain statement
Permission statement as requested by copyright holder

Placement of Copyright Attributions

Tables, figures, images: end of general note
Reproduced text: footnote to the reproduced text

Examples of Copyright Attribution Templates (Table 12.1)

Source	Status	Source information	Status	Copyright Permission statement
Journal, magazine, newspaper, or blog	-	Title of Article, by A. A. Author and B. B. Author, year, Title of Periodical, Volume(Issue), p. xx (DOI or URL)	Copyright year by Name of Copyright Holder	-
Authored book or report	Title of Book or Report (p. xx), by A. A. Author and B. B. Author, year, Publisher (DOI or URL)	Reprinted with permission
Edited book chapter	Title of Chapter, by A. A. Author and B. B. Author, in E. E. Editor and F. F. Editor (Eds.), Title of Book (any edition or volume number, p. xx), year, Publisher (DOI or URL)	Adapted with permission
Webpage or website	Title of Webpage, by A. A. Author and B. B. Author, year, Site Name (DOI or URL)	CC BY-NC
Work from which the table or figure was reproduced	-	-	-	-

Examples of Copyright Attributions for Different Materials

Journal article: reprinted with permission, Creative Commons license, in public domain
Book: copyrighted and reprinted with permission
Edited book chapter: adapted with permission
Webpage or website: Creative Commons license, work from which table/figure is reproduced.

During and After Publication

Preparing for Publication

After manuscript acceptance, authors contacted for article proofs review
Proofs typically handled via annotation websites
Make corrections, answer copyeditor queries
Be attentive to meaning and formatting
Deadline for submitting changes is important

Proof Stage Guidelines

Review all elements: text, headings, statistics, equations, tables, figures
Correct spelling, grammar, typesetting errors
Update references
Be explicit with requested changes
Check alignment, symbols, figure notes, labels, etc.
Coauthors' changes should be consolidated by the corresponding author

Copyright Policies Upon Publication

Copyright ownership transfers to publisher
Permits wide distribution and monitoring of republication
Authors retain rights to reuse their article under certain conditions
U.S. government employees: work is in public domain if produced within scope of employment
Publishers may grant permissions for use by the U.S. government
Open access deposit policies require making research findings publicly available upon publication
Forms of open access include prepublication manuscript deposits and immediate, free access to final articles
Publishers support open access through article processing charges paid by authors using designated resources.

Writing a Correction Notice

Writing a Correction Notice

Errors in Published Articles

Errors occur, submit correction notice to editor and publisher
Formal correction includes: exact error, correct information, affected versions
Not necessary for minor typographical errors

Examples of Errors Requiring Correction

Adding author or changing authorship order
Altering affiliation
Replacing reference with different one
Changing data or results significance
Substituting words or rewriting sentences

Content of a Correction Notice

Journal title, year, volume number, issue number, DOI, page numbers
Complete article title and authors' names
Precise location of error
Quotation or paraphrasing of the error
Concise, unambiguous correction

Review Process

Editor and publisher review proposed correction
Decision to publish correction notice or leave error
Publisher compiles correction notice in official template

Publication of Correction Notices

Published with DOI like articles
Print and online publication
In next available issue if article already in print
Within same issue if article not yet printed
Online version for articles only published online

Additional Resources

APA Style website for sample correction notices (https://apastyle.apa.org)

Sharing our Article Online

Sharing Articles Online

Rights and Permissions:

Copyright owners have exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute
Journals publish original scholarship in print and electronic formats
Publishers' policies regarding online posting

APA Policies:

Pre-publication manuscripts allowed for posting
Posted version must carry copyright notice and DOI
Statement disclaiming copying without author permission required
Final article available via open access deposit policy (Section 12.21)

Promoting Your Article:

Post-Publication:

Encouraged to promote after publication
Develop summaries in plain language
Share on social media with DOI
Journal may request public health significance statement
Publishers offer tools for promoting and tracking impact

Pre-Publication:

Some journals ask for press releases (organizations or universities)
Language must be clear, findings reported accurately

General Resources:

APA website provides guidance on manuscript post-acceptance procedures and dissemination
FAQs on internet posting and open access deposit policies available
Guidance on writing public health significance statements

Importance of Promotion:

Reach a wide audience who might not be aware of research
Significant achievement, but impact goes beyond publication.

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Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Seventh Edition.

Contents

INTRODUCTION

Notes to Users

Scholarly writing and Publishing Principles

Types of Articles and Papers

Qualitative Articles

Mixed Methods Articles

Section: Quantitative and Qualitative Meta-Analyses

Theoretical Articles

Other Types of Articles

Ethical Legal and Professional Standards in Publishing

Ethical and Accurate Reporting of Research Results

Data Retention and Sharing

Sharing After Publication. Authors must make their data available after publication, subject to conditions and exceptions, within the period of retent

Additional Data-Sharing Considerations for Qualitative Research

Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data

Acknowledging and Citing Previous Work. Authors sometimes want to publish what is essentially the same material in more than one venue to reach differ

Multiple Publications From Large-Scale, Longitudinal Projects and Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research.

With mixed methods studies, authors might publish multiple articles, such as a qualitative study, a quantitative study, and a mixed methods overview s

Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research Participants and Subjects

Conflict of Interest

Protecting Intellectual Property Rights

Student Assignments

Ethical Compliance Checklist

PAPER ELEMENTS AND FORMAT

Paper Elements

Author Name Byline

All Authors Share One Affiliation

Author Note

Fourth Paragraph: Contact Information

Text Body

Format

Appendices

Supplemental Materials

Format

Line Spacing Double-space the entire paper, including the title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure not

Paragraph Alignment

Organisation

Section Labels

Journal Article Reporting Standards

Terminology Used in JARS

Replication Articles

Historical Antecedents

Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research

Findings

Psychometrics. Estimate and Report

Discussion

Quantitative Method Standards

The descriptions of participant characteristics should be sensitive to the ways the participants understand and express their identities, statuses, hi

Research Design

Data Diagnosis

Method

Quantitative Discussion Standards

Clinical Trials

Replication Articles

Introduction

Participant Recruitment

RECORDING AND DATA TRANSFORMATION

Discussion

Qualitative Method Standards

Researcher–Participant Relationships

Analysis

Evaluation of whether a solution worked

Qualitative Meta-Analysis Standards

Reporting Standards for Mixed Methods Research

Method. Research Design Overview

Findings Results

Writing Style and Grammar

Continuity and Flow

Importance of Conciseness and Clarity

Sentence and Paragraph Length

Logical Comparisons

Grammar and Usage