By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Assign mutable and immutable variables in Rust
- Create and use Rust structs and enums
- Use Rust match statements
- Add implementations to Rust types
- Deserialize instruction data into Rust data types
- Execute different program logic for different types of instructions
- Explain the structure of a smart contract on Solana
- Most programs support multiple discrete instructions - you decide when writing your program what these instructions are and what data must accompany them
- Rust enums are often used to represent discrete program instructions
- You can use the
borshcrate and thederiveattribute to provide Borsh deserialization and serialization functionality to Rust structs - Rust
matchexpressions help create conditional code paths based on the provided instruction
One of the most basic elements of a Solana program is the logic for handling instruction data. Most programs support multiple related functions and use differences in instruction data to determine which code path to execute. For example, two different data formats in the instruction data passed to the program may represent instructions for creating a new piece of data vs deleting the same piece of data.
Since instruction data is provided to your program's entry point as a byte array, it's common to create a Rust data type to represent instructions in a way that's more usable throughout your code. This lesson will walk through how to set up such a type, how to deserialize the instruction data into this format, and how to execute the proper code path based on the instruction passed into the program's entry point.
Before we dive into the specifics of a basic Solana program, let's talk about the Rust basics we'll be using throughout this lesson.
Variable assignment in Rust happens with the let keyword.
let age = 33;Variables in Rust by default are immutable, meaning a variable's value cannot be changed once it has been set. In order to create a variable that we'd like to change at some point in the future, we use the mut keyword. Defining a variable with this keyword means that the value stored in it can change.
// compiler will throw error
let age = 33;
age = 34;
// this is allowed
let mut mutable_age = 33;
mutable_age = 34;The Rust compiler guarantees that immutable variables truly cannot change so that you don’t have to keep track of it yourself. This makes your code easier to reason through and simplifies debugging.
A struct, or structure, is a custom data type that lets you package together and name multiple related values that make up a meaningful group. Each piece of data in a struct can be of different types and each has a name associated with it. These pieces of data are called fields. They behave similarly to properties in other languages.
struct User {
active: bool,
email: String,
age: u64
}To use a struct after we’ve defined it, we create an instance of that struct by specifying concrete values for each of the fields.
let mut user1 = User {
active: true,
email: String::from("[email protected]"),
age: 36
};To get or set a specific value from a struct, we use dot notation.
user1.age = 37;Enumerations (or Enums) are a data struct that allow you to define a type by enumerating its possible variants. An example of an enum may look like:
enum LightStatus {
On,
Off
}The LightStatus enum has two possible variants in this situation: it's either On or Off.
You can also embed values into enum variants, similar to adding fields to a struct.
enum LightStatus {
On {
color: String
},
Off
}
let light_status = LightStatus::On { color: String::from("red") };In this example, setting a variable to the On variant of LightStatus requires also setting the value of color.
Match statements are very similar to switch statements in C/C++. The match statement allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based on which pattern matches the value. Patterns can be made of literal values, variable names, wildcards, and more. The match statement must include all possible scenarios, otherwise the code will not compile.
enum Coin {
Penny,
Nickel,
Dime,
Quarter
}
fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
match coin {
Coin::Penny => 1,
Coin::Nickel => 5,
Coin::Dime => 10,
Coin::Quarter => 25
}
}The impl keyword is used in Rust to define a type's implementations. Functions and constants can both be defined in an implementation.
struct Example {
number: i32
}
impl Example {
fn boo() {
println!("boo! Example::boo() was called!");
}
fn answer(&mut self) {
self.number += 42;
}
fn get_number(&self) -> i32 {
self.number
}
}The function boo here can only be called on the type itself rather than an instance of the type, like so:
Example::boo();Meanwhile, answer requires a mutable instance of Example and can be called with dot syntax:
let mut example = Example { number: 3 };
example.answer();You won't be creating your own traits or attributes at this stage, so we won't provide an in depth explanation of either. However, you will be using the derive attribute macro and some traits provided by the borsh crate, so it's important you have a high level understanding of each.
Traits describe an abstract interface that types can implement. If a trait defines a function bark() and a type then adopts that trait, the type must then implement the bark() function.
Attributes add metadata to a type and can be used for many different purposes.
When you add the derive attribute to a type and provide one or more supported traits, code is generated under the hood to automatically implement the traits for that type. We'll provide a concrete example of this shortly.
Now that we've covered the Rust basics, let's apply them to Solana programs.
More often than not, programs will have more than one function. For example, you may have a program that acts as the backend for a note-taking app. Assume this program accepts instructions for creating a new note, updating an existing note, and deleting an existing note.
Since instructions have discrete types, they're usually a great fit for an enum data type.
enum NoteInstruction {
CreateNote {
title: String,
body: String,
id: u64
},
UpdateNote {
title: String,
body: String,
id: u64
},
DeleteNote {
id: u64
}
}Notice that each variant of the NoteInstruction enum comes with embedded data that will be used by the program to accomplish the tasks of creating, updating, and deleting a note, respectively.
Instruction data is passed to the program as a byte array, so you need a way to deterministically convert that array into an instance of the instruction enum type.
In previous modules, we used Borsh for client-side serialization and deserialization. To use Borsh program-side, we use the borsh crate. This crate provides traits for BorshDeserialize and BorshSerialize that you can apply to your types using the derive attribute.
To make deserializing instruction data simple, you can create a struct representing the data and use the derive attribute to apply the BorshDeserialize trait to the struct. This implements the methods defined in BorshDeserialize, including the the try_from_slice method that we'll be using to deserialize the instruction data.
Remember, the struct itself needs to match the structure of the data in the byte array.
#[derive(BorshDeserialize)]
struct NoteInstructionPayload {
id: u64,
title: String,
body: String
}Once this struct has been created, you can create an implementation for your instruction enum to handle the logic associated with deserializing instruction data. It's common to see this done inside a function called unpack that accepts the instruction data as an argument and returns the appropriate instance of the enum with the deserialized data.
It's standard practice to structure your program to expect the first byte (or other fixed number of bytes) to be an identifier for which instruction the program should run. This could be an integer or a string identifier. For this example, we'll use the first byte and map integers 0, 1, and 2 to instructions create, update, and delete, respectively.
impl NoteInstruction {
// Unpack inbound buffer to associated Instruction
// The expected format for input is a Borsh serialized vector
pub fn unpack(input: &[u8]) -> Result<Self, ProgramError> {
// Take the first byte as the variant to
// determine which instruction to execute
let (&variant, rest) = input.split_first().ok_or(ProgramError::InvalidInstructionData)?;
// Use the temporary payload struct to deserialize
let payload = NoteInstructionPayload::try_from_slice(rest).unwrap();
// Match the variant to determine which data struct is expected by
// the function and return the TestStruct or an error
Ok(match variant {
0 => Self::CreateNote {
title: payload.title,
body: payload.body,
id: payload.id
},
1 => Self::UpdateNote {
title: payload.title,
body: payload.body,
id: payload.id
},
2 => Self::DeleteNote {
id: payload.id
},
_ => return Err(ProgramError::InvalidInstructionData)
})
}
}There's a lot in this example so let's take it one step at a time:
- This function starts by using the
split_firstfunction on theinputparameter to return a tuple. The first element,variant, is the first byte from the byte array and the second element,rest, is the rest of the byte array. - The function then uses the
try_from_slicemethod onNoteInstructionPayloadto deserialize the rest of the byte array into an instance ofNoteInstructionPayloadcalledpayload - Finally, the function uses a
matchstatement onvariantto create and return the appropriate enum instance using information frompayload
Note that there is Rust syntax in this function that we haven't explained yet. The ok_or and unwrap functions are used for error handling and will be discussed in detail in another lesson.
With a way to deserialize instruction data into a custom Rust type, you can then use appropriate control flow to execute different code paths in your program based on which instruction is passed into your program's entry point.
entrypoint!(process_instruction);
pub fn process_instruction(
program_id: &Pubkey,
accounts: &[AccountInfo],
instruction_data: &[u8]
) -> ProgramResult {
// Call unpack to deserialize instruction_data
let instruction = NoteInstruction::unpack(instruction_data)?;
// Match the returned data struct to what you expect
match instruction {
NoteInstruction::CreateNote { title, body, id } => {
// Execute program code to create a note
},
NoteInstruction::UpdateNote { title, body, id } => {
// Execute program code to update a note
},
NoteInstruction::DeleteNote { id } => {
// Execute program code to delete a note
}
}
}For simple programs where there are only one or two instructions to execute, it may be fine to write the logic inside the match statement. For programs with many different possible instructions to match against, your code will be much more readable if the logic for each instruction is written in a separate function and simply called from inside the match statement.
The Hello World lesson’s program was simple enough that it could be confined to one file. But as the complexity of a program grows, it's important to maintain a project structure that remains readable and extensible. This involves encapsulating code into functions and data structures as we've done so far. But it also involves grouping related code into separate files.
For example, a good portion of the code we've worked through so far has to do with defining and deserializing instructions. That code should live in its own file rather than be written in the same file as the entry point. By doing so, we would then have 2 files, one with the program entry point and the other with the instruction code:
- lib.rs
- instruction.rs
Once you start splitting your program up like this you will need to make sure you register all of the files in one central location. We’ll be doing this in lib.rs. You must register every file in your program like this.
// This would be inside lib.rs
pub mod instruction;Additionally, any declarations that you would like to be available through use statements in other files will need to be prefaced with the pub keyword:
pub enum NoteInstruction { ... }For this lesson’s demo, we’ll be building out the first half of the Movie Review program that we worked with in Module 1. This program stores movie reviews submitted by users.
For now, we'll focus on deserializing the instruction data. The following lesson will focus on the second half of this program.
We’ll be using Solana Playground again to build out this program. Solana Playground saves state in your browser, so everything you did in the previous lesson may still be there. If it is, let's clear everything out from the current lib.rs file.
Inside lib.rs, we’re going to bring in the following crates and define where we’d like our entry point to the program to be with the entrypoint macro.
use solana_program::{
entrypoint,
entrypoint::ProgramResult,
pubkey::Pubkey,
msg,
account_info::AccountInfo,
};
// Entry point is a function call process_instruction
entrypoint!(process_instruction);
// Inside lib.rs
pub fn process_instruction(
program_id: &Pubkey,
accounts: &[AccountInfo],
instruction_data: &[u8]
) -> ProgramResult {
Ok(())
}Before we continue with the processor logic, we should define our supported instructions and implement our deserialization function.
For readability, let's create a new file called instruction.rs. Inside this new file, add use statements for BorshDeserialize and ProgramError, then create a MovieInstruction enum with an AddMovieReview variant. This variant should have embedded values for title, rating, and description.
use borsh::{BorshDeserialize};
use solana_program::{program_error::ProgramError};
pub enum MovieInstruction {
AddMovieReview {
title: String,
rating: u8,
description: String
}
}Next, define a MovieReviewPayload struct. This will act as an intermediary type for deserializtion so it should use the derive attribute macro to provide a default implementation for the BorshDeserialize trait.
#[derive(BorshDeserialize)]
struct MovieReviewPayload {
title: String,
rating: u8,
description: String
}Finally, create an implementation for the MovieInstruction enum that defines and implements a function called unpack that takes a byte array as an argument and returns a Result type. This function should:
- Use the
split_firstfunction to split the first byte of the array from the rest of the array - Deserialize the rest of the array into an instance of
MovieReviewPayload - Use a
matchstatement to return theAddMovieReviewvariant ofMovieInstructionif the first byte of the array was a 0 or return a program error otherwise
impl MovieInstruction {
// Unpack inbound buffer to associated Instruction
// The expected format for input is a Borsh serialized vector
pub fn unpack(input: &[u8]) -> Result<Self, ProgramError> {
// Split the first byte of data
let (&variant, rest) = input.split_first().ok_or(ProgramError::InvalidInstructionData)?;
// `try_from_slice` is one of the implementations from the BorshDeserialization trait
// Deserializes instruction byte data into the payload struct
let payload = MovieReviewPayload::try_from_slice(rest).unwrap();
// Match the first byte and return the AddMovieReview struct
Ok(match variant {
0 => Self::AddMovieReview {
title: payload.title,
rating: payload.rating,
description: payload.description },
_ => return Err(ProgramError::InvalidInstructionData)
})
}
}With the instruction deserialization handled, we can return to the lib.rs file to handle some of our program logic.
Remember, since we added code to a different file, we need to register it in the lib.rs file using pub mod instruction;. Then we can add a use statement to bring the MovieInstruction type into scope.
pub mod instruction;
use instruction::{MovieInstruction};Next, let's define a new function add_movie_review that takes as arguments program_id, accounts, title, rating, and description. It should also return an instance of ProgramResult Inside this function, let's simply log our values for now and we'll revisit the rest of the implementation of the function in the next lesson.
pub fn add_movie_review(
program_id: &Pubkey,
accounts: &[AccountInfo],
title: String,
rating: u8,
description: String
) -> ProgramResult {
// Logging instruction data that was passed in
msg!("Adding movie review...");
msg!("Title: {}", title);
msg!("Rating: {}", rating);
msg!("Description: {}", description);
Ok(())
}With that done, we can call add_movie_review from process_instruction (the function we set as our entry point). In order to pass all the required arguments to the function, we'll first need to call the unpack we created on MovieInstruction, then use a match statement to ensure that the instruction we've received is the AddMovieReview variant.
pub fn process_instruction(
program_id: &Pubkey,
accounts: &[AccountInfo],
instruction_data: &[u8]
) -> ProgramResult {
// Unpack called
let instruction = MovieInstruction::unpack(instruction_data)?;
// Match against the data struct returned into `instruction` variable
match instruction {
MovieInstruction::AddMovieReview { title, rating, description } => {
// Make a call to `add_move_review` function
add_movie_review(program_id, accounts, title, rating, description)
}
}
}And just like that, your program should be functional enough to log the instruction data passed in when a transaction is submitted!
Build and deploy your program from Solana Program just like in the last lesson. If you haven't changed the program ID since going through the last lesson, it will automatically deploy to the same ID. If you'd like it to have a separate address you can generate a new program ID from the playground before deploying.
You can test your program by submitting a transaction with the right instruction data. For that, feel free to use this script or the frontend we built in the Serialize Custom Instruction Data lesson. In both cases, make sure you copy and paste the program ID for your program into the appropriate area of the source code to make sure you're testing the right program.
If you need to spend some more time with this demo before moving on, please do! You can also have a look at the program solution code if you get stuck.
For this lesson's challenge, try replicating the Student Intro program from Module 1. Recall that we created a frontend application that lets students introduce themselves! The program takes a user's name and a short message as the instruction_data and creates an account to store the data on-chain.
Using what you've learned in this lesson, build the Student Intro program to the point where you can print the name and message provided by the user to the program logs when the program is invoked.
You can test your program by building the frontend we created in the Serialize Custom Instruction Data lesson and then checking the program logs on Solana Explorer. Remember to replace the program ID in the frontend code with the one you've deployed.
Try to do this independently if you can! But if you get stuck, feel free to reference the solution code.