as defined in Crafting Interpreters by Bob Nystrom
Build:
# compile
javac @args
# make a jar
jar -cfm lox.jar manifest.txt com/
Start REPL:
# java style
java com/craftinginterpreters/lox/Lox
# as a jar
java -jar lox.jar
#bash shortcut
./loxExecute file:
# java style
java com/craftinginterpreters/lox/Lox test/testfile
# as a jar
java -jar lox.jar test/testfile
# bash shortcut
./lox test/testfile-
comma operator:
- added the comma operator first, giving it the lowest precendence, before equality since it separates expressions
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ternary operator: c operators wiki
A precedence table, while mostly adequate, cannot resolve a few details. In particular, note that the ternary operator allows any arbitrary expression as its middle operand, despite being listed as having higher precedence than the assignment and comma operators. Thus a ? b, c : d is interpreted as a ? (b, c) : d, and not as the meaningless (a ? b), (c : d). So, the expression in the middle of the conditional operator (between ? and :) is parsed as if parenthesized. Also, note that the immediate, unparenthesized result of a C cast expression cannot be the operand of sizeof. Therefore, sizeof (int) * x is interpreted as (sizeof(int)) * x and not sizeof ((int) * x).
- Ternary operator '?:'
- I implemented the ternary operator as a separate ternary expression. Is this normal? or do other languages maybe consider the ternary operator as 2 separte binary expressions? I'm not sure that makes more sense.
- I'm concerned this might complicate using the '?' as a different operator later, since We throw an error if an ':' character isn't found after '?', maybe we just skip the error if it's not useful later.
- second thought, this is not a problem because ternary op has the lowest precedence
- I just noticed this in the parser, does it make sense to error if comma is missing a left operand? it discards the result anyway doesn't it?
if (match(COMMA)) error(peek(), "Comma operator missing left operand");-
sure feels like I'm seeing a lot of references to lisp lately, might be time to learn.
The bindings that associate variables to values need to be stored somewhere. Ever since the Lisp folks invented parentheses, this data structure has been called an environment.
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this guy talks about Scheme a lot and I've never heard if it before
My rule about variables and scoping is, “When in doubt, do what Scheme does”.
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the AstPrinter needs to implement all the visitor functions in order to compile, but we no longer use it to print. We should remove it from the args file (stop building it) or extend it to read from a file for test purposes
- cool aside might be to add an option to the interpreter to print to AST instead of interpreting
- Start witht the visit variable methods
- for now just taking it out of the args file so it stops trying to compile
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(Assignment 8.4)
I find it delightful that the same group of people who pride themselves on dispassionate logic are also the ones who can’t resist emotionally loaded terms for their work: “pure”, “side effect”, “lazy”, “persistent”, “first-class”, “higher-order”.
- I find statements like this^^ ('funny how those other people do this thing while...'- type commentary) to be unproductive. Not even sure what he's taking a jab at here, guess he doesn't like functional programmers.
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(Scope 8.5)
Lexical scope came onto the scene with ALGOL. Earlier languages were often dynamically scoped. Computer scientists back then believed dynamic scope was faster to execute. Today, thanks to early Scheme hackers, we know that isn’t true. If anything, it’s the opposite.
- ^^ interesting bit of CS history (and another Scheme reference, this guy loves Scheme apparently)
Dynamic scope for variables lives on in some corners. Emacs Lisp defaults to dynamic scope for variables. The binding macro in Clojure provides it. The widely disliked with statement in JavaScript turns properties on an object into dynamically scoped variables.
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Challenge:
- implemented these prints in the repl by making visitExpressionStatement include a print
- implemented the unassigned var excception, by setting each name to true in a new 'assigned' map when they are assigned a value
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this lets us use nil has a legit value, and forces us to provide something as a var initializer before the var can be used.
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gives us explicit nils but doesn't work when you intialize on the definition.
the first throws 'unassigned variable'
var b = nil; print b; var b; b = nil; print b; -
so we force an assign when nil is given to a var statement, this feels kind of messy
public Void visitVarStmt(Stmt.Var stmt) { Object value = null; if (stmt.initializer != null) { value = evaluate(stmt.initializer); if(value == null && stringify(value) != "nil") throw new RuntimeError(stmt.name, "Unassigned variable'" + stmt.name.lexeme + "'."); environment.define(stmt.name.lexeme, value); environment.assign(stmt.name, value); }else{ environment.define(stmt.name.lexeme, value); } return null; }
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"... But the opening parenthesis after if doesn’t do anything useful. Dennis Ritchie put it there so he could use ) as the ending delimiter without having unbalanced parentheses."
- not sure who Dennis Ritchie is but I think I'm on his side on this one. I hate the weird grouping chars that Bash uses sometimes like if->fi and case->esac, just because I think its ugly.
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Maximum argument counts
Other languages have various approaches. The C standard says a conforming implementation has to support at least 127 arguments to a function, but doesn’t say there’s any upper limit. The Java specification says a method can accept no more than 255 arguments.
- never occured to me there'd be a limit here, but I suppose there has to be in compiled languages?
Our Java interpreter for Lox doesn’t really need a limit, but having a maximum number of arguments will simplify our bytecode interpreter in Part III. We want our two interpreters to be compatible with each other, even in weird corner cases like this, so we’ll add the same limit to jlox.
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Interpreting function calls
This is another one of those subtle semantic choices. Since argument expressions may have side effects, the order they are evaluated could be user visible. Even so, some languages like Scheme and C don’t specify an order. This gives compilers freedom to reorder them for efficiency, but means users may be unpleasantly surprised if arguments aren’t evaluated in the order they expect.
- I think having a call or an assignment as an argument to another call is okay in practice, but having multiple that need to be executed in a specific order in the same call, would be bad practice anyway.
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Native Functions
Many languages also allow users to provide their own native functions. The mechanism for doing so is called a foreign function interface (FFI), native extension, native interface, or something along those lines.
- I've not heard of this before but wonder what this looks like for something like javascript, or python
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Function Declaration
private Stmt declaration() { try { if (match(FUN)) return function("function"); // this is kind of strange if (match(VAR)) return varDeclaration(); return statement(); } catch (ParseError error) { synchronize(); return null; } }
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Weird that he got lazy with new enums and classes here, I suppose the overhead of another class method that inherits function is too much boilerplate for just this 1 check
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is there a reason why we might implement another class?
Just like we reuse the grammar rule, we’ll reuse the function() method later to parse methods inside classes. When we do that, we’ll pass in “method” for kind so that the error messages are specific to the kind of declaration being parsed.
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This class wraps the return value with the accoutrements Java requires for a runtime exception class. The weird super constructor call with those null and false arguments disables some JVM machinery that we don’t need. Since we’re using our exception class for control flow and not actual error handling, we don’t need overhead like stack traces.
- neat use of Exception for something other than error handling
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Function Assignment?
- He didn't assign his functions to the calling environment when they were declared, or anywhere else, causing runtime errors for "unassigned var"
- I suspect this is going to cause more trouble later, and only caused a problem right now because unassigned vars is defined as an Error.
- This gets us almost there, tests/functions and tests/count now work, but tests/fibonacci throws errors because of functions as operands for the + operator
- fixed in issue #8
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Second pass - static analysis
"There are no side effects. When the static analysis visits a print statement, it doesn’t actually print anything. Calls to native functions or other operations that reach out to the outside world are stubbed out and have no effect."
"There is no control flow. Loops are visited only once. Both branches are visited in if statements. Logic operators are not short-circuited."
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The author tends to lean towards more restrictive syntax, assuming no one would ever want to do a thing, make it an error or make it impossible.
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I tend to disagree, language shouldn't tell the speaker what to say or how to say it.
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I think there's space for both, and heavily Object Oriented code, makes programatic analysis easier I suppose, and stops the programmer from making common mistakes, but makes for a poor programming experience in my opinion.
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"Unlikely to be deliberate" isn't enough to convince me no one would/should ever try.
"Do either of those first two options look like something a user actually wants? Shadowing is rare and often an error, so initializing a shadowing variable based on the value of the shadowed one seems unlikely to be deliberate."
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functions are expressions and statements to make anonymous functions happen. This calls for changes in the resolver.
- resolveFunction
- change definition to take Expr.Function instead of Stmt.Function
- visitFunctionStmt
- pass the function expression field from the function statement to resolve
@Override public Void visitFunctionStmt(Stmt.Function stmt) { declare(stmt.name); define(stmt.name); resolveFunction(stmt.function); return null; }
- pass the function expression field from the function statement to resolve
- will need to test this thoroughly with anonymous functions
- implemented visitFunctionExpr to resolve variables in anonymous functions
- resolveFunction
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Java void vs Void?
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we also need to implement visitTernaryExpr in Resolver class
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and break statement
- As part of the challenge to add breaks, we added the check for loops in the parser
- Is it better to catch this in the parser or the resolver?
- right now its in both but the parser runs first and is more restrictive (only break in loops) I kind of want to be able to break out of any scope
- functions, blocks, loops
- Is there legitimate use for breaking out of functions and blocks??
- right now its in both but the parser runs first and is more restrictive (only break in loops) I kind of want to be able to break out of any scope
- we stepped away from this book when our code was broken to finish Art of WebAssembly and got a bit turned around.
- DONT FORGET TO MERGE IN MAIN'S README BEFORE ROLLING IT BACK SO WE DON'T LOSE NOTES (addressed as merge conflict resolution)
"Those are the only changes to Interpreter. This is why I chose a representation for our resolved data that was minimally invasive. All of the rest of the nodes continue working as they did before. Even the code for modifying environments is unchanged" (188)
- OOP is bad for this, boilerplate complexity seems like grows exponentially with the number of classes and interfaces involved
because a function statement holds a function expression...
for (Token param : function.function.parameters) {
declare(param);
define(param);
}
resolve(function.function.body);- page 206, in visitClassStmt() in Interpreter.java, the loop to methods for the class are defined
for (Stmt.Function method : stmt.methods) {
LoxFunction function = new LoxFunction(method, environment);
methods.put(method.name.lexeme, function);
}- but lox function constructor takes 3 arguments (I'm not sure if this was a change because of a challenge question or not we will have to back track...) and we need a function expr not a function stmt (this I'm pretty sure was a challenge question)
LoxFunction(String name, Expr.Function declaration, Environment closure) {
this.name = name;
this.closure = closure;
this.declaration = declaration;
}-
fixed "package structure" - not a huge fan of how this is enforced
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AstPrinter.java I moved to tools, but in order for it to see Expr everything in Expr needs to be made public
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12.6 My LoxFunction implementation also has 'name' in the constructor, the book just has declaration, and environment
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12.7.2
"We've been assuming that a user-written initializer doesn't explicitly return a value because most constructors don't. What should happen if a user tries:
class Foo { init() { return "something else"; } }It's definitely not going to do what they want, so we may as well make it as static error"
^^ This I vehemently disagree with... I'll submit it's not a common case but I have done this with intention and I was happy javascript allowed me to. I think it's better is to return 'this' by default, unless provided something else.
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challenges:
(isClassMethod ? classMethods: methods).add(function("method"));
- ^^ clever use of the ternary operator I've not seen this before
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begins c virtual machine implementation
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brush up on c macros like how GROW_CAPACITY and GROW_ARRAY are defined in memory.h
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I didn't realize in c you can just pass a type to a function like any other value
- is this specific to macros?
#define FREE_ARRAY(type, pointer, oldCount) \ reallocate(pointer, sizeof(type) * (oldCount), 0) void freeChunk(Chunk* chunk) { FREE_ARRAY(uint8_t, chunk->code, chunk->capacity); initChunk(chunk); }
- for loop initialize statement that initializes something other than an int always surprises me. Here he initialized a stack.
for (Value* slot = vm.stack; slot < vm.stackTop; slot++) { printf("[ "); printValue(*slot); printf(" ]"); }
- hold on... can we pass operators as parameters to functions in c?
case OP_ADD: BINARY_OP(+); break; case OP_SUBTRACT: BINARY_OP(-); break; case OP_MULTIPLY: BINARY_OP(*); break; case OP_DIVIDE: BINARY_OP(/); break;
- ^^ BINARY_OP is a macro
"I admit this is a fairly adventurous use of the C preprocessor."
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defining an Enum so we can more easily use an array as a table and reference elements by name is pretty clever. I wonder how common is this pattern.
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Conditonal operator challenge question answer on book's github page might have an error in the consume() definition, unless this changes later consume doesn't take a compiler reference, only the expected token and an error message
consume(compiler, TOKEN_COLON, //...- need to brush up/read more into these macro definitions, this looks strange to me. It's not obvious how does this syntax work? value.h
#define BOOL_VAL(value) ((Value) {VAL_BOOL, {.boolean = value}})
#define NIL_VAL ((Value) {VAL_NIL, {.number = 0}})
#define NUMBER_VAL(value) ((Value) {VAL_NUMBER, {.number = value}})page 332: vm.c runtimeError
src/vm.c: In function ‘runtimeError’:
src/vm.c:23:16: error: incompatible types when initializing type ‘int’ using type ‘LineStart’
23 | int line = vm.chunk->lines[instruction];
| ^~
- memcmp can't be used to implement the equality operator
page 339:
"because of padding and different sized union fields, a Value contains unused bits. C gives no guarantee about what is in those, so it's possible that two equal Values acutally differ in memory that isn't used"
- we made a branch for the first challenge question, which involved changing the heap allocated char* to a stack allocated "flexible array memeber"
- the second question involved adding a flag to signal ownership of the char array as a memory optimization for constant strings, but the solution ignored the implementation of the first question so we reverted them both to avoid problems later on
- branch from: c68b1b8 - "finish chapter 20" later if we decide to add support for key value types other than string for hash tables
static void patchJump(int offset) {
// -2 to adjust for the bytecode for the jump offset istself.
int jump = currentChunk()->count - offset -2;
if (jump > UINT16_MAX) {
error("Too much code to jump over.");
}
currentChunk()->code[offset] = (jump >> 8);
currentChunk()->code[offset + 1] = jump & 0xff;
}- This is one of those errors I didn't know might exist. The fact that you need to know how much code is in your then block and that is a value that needs to be stored makes sense. I wonder if modern languages have this limit, and its just very large, or if there's some more complicated mechanism to work around it.
- I wonder if the 'backpatching' can happen in a second pass
- side note: what's a second pass look like in a bytecode based vm compiler?
page 444:
"We could access the current frame by going through the CallFrame array every time, but that's verbose. More importantly, storing the frame in a local variable encourages the C compiler to keep that pointer in a register. That speeds up access to the frame's ip. There's no *guarantee* that the compiler will do this, but there's a good chance it will.
- ^^ how much time do you have to spend looking at a compiler to gain insight like this? Does this really produce a noticible increase in speed, and is this true for all C compilers? Does gcc and clang behave the same for things like this?
page ... 24.3.3 vm.c in runtimeError()
int line = frame->function->chunk.lines[instruction];
//should be
int line = frame->function->chunk.lines[instruction].line; - not an error, the line in the book is correct, unless you implement the challenge question from chapter 14 that deals with optimizing line number generation
page 487:
"And function declarations that create closures are rarely on performance critical execution paths in the user's program"
- does he mean in general? or is this specific to lox? Is he saying closed over variables are not very useful in practical applications?
page 502: "The first managed langguage was Lisp, the second 'high-level' languaggge to be invented, right after Fortran (...) He designed the very first, simplest garbage collection algorithm, called mark-and-sweep (...) despite its age and simplicity, the same fundamental algorithm underlies many modern memory managers."
- Lisp gets a lot of mentions in the book here. I had no idea it was such an important language. Seems its inventors brought a lot of new ideas to the table.
things to revist: - bindmethod/boundMethod - pratt parsing
(page 600)
- Author complains about IEEE 754 - standard for floating point arithmetic - requiring "NaN == NaN" to evaluate to false