[CUDA] drop CUDA 10 support, start supporting CUDA 12 (fixes #5789)

[jameslamb]

Fixes #5789.

• drops support for CUDA 10
• adds support for CUDA 12

Notes for Reviewers

CUDA 12.2.2 is the latest release of the CUDA toolkit (https://developer.nvidia.com/cuda-toolkit-archive), but the latest official Docker image is 12.2.0 (https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/containers/cuda), so I made the new job here 12.2.0.

I think it's important the method: source CI job be tested against the latest version of CUDA, since as of now installing from source is the only way users can work with a CUDA-enabled version of the Python package.

[jameslamb]

With generating code for 2 more CUDA architectures, the linux CUDA wheels are now around 63 MB uncompressed.

==================== running pydistcheck ====================

checking '/LightGBM/dist/lightgbm-4.1.0.99-py3-none-manylinux_2_27_x86_64.whl'
----- package inspection summary -----
file size
  * compressed size: 40.6M
  * uncompressed size: 63.3M
  * compression space saving: 35.9%
contents
  * directories: 0
  * files: 17 (1 compiled)
size by extension
  * .so - 64423.5K (99.3%)
  * .py - 404.7K (0.6%)
  * no-extension - 21.5K (0.0%)
  * .txt - 0.0K (0.0%)
  * .typed - 0.0K (0.0%)

Build link: https://github.com/microsoft/LightGBM/actions/runs/6186545556/job/16794443363?pr=6099

We could start dropping older architectures at some point if we think that's a problem, but I don't think that should even be considered until we start possibly distributing precompiled CUDA wheels via a repository like PyPI.

Until then, I think building for more architectures to support a wider range of GPUs is desirable, and a few more MB on disk for the wheel isn't a big concern.

[jameslamb]

I'd specifically like a review from @shiyu1994 before we merge this one, to be sure I'm not missing something. I don't know a lot about CUDA 😅

[shiyu1994]

@jameslamb Thanks for working on this! This is very helpful. We definitely need to support CUDA 12. I'll review this in the next few days.

[jameslamb]

Sure no problem, take your time!

[jameslamb]

thanks @shiyu1994 !

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