diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug-report.yaml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug-report.yaml
index c4e40abc6..2cbee8fc9 100644
--- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug-report.yaml
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug-report.yaml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 
 name: Bug Report
 description: File a bug report
-labels: [bug]
+labels: [bug, triage]
 body:
   - type: markdown
     id: preface
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature-request.yaml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature-request.yaml
index 13603c30c..d6656579e 100644
--- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature-request.yaml
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature-request.yaml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 
 name: Feature Request
 description: File a feature request
-labels: [enhancement]
+labels: [enhancement, triage]
 body:
   - type: markdown
     id: preface
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build.yml b/.github/workflows/build.yml
index f7c7a38d6..87928b367 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build.yml
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        go-version: ['1.20']
+        go-version: ['1.21']
       fail-fast: true
     steps:
       - name: Checkout
diff --git a/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml b/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
index 152cab650..b9e75f8d6 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ jobs:
       security-events: write
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        go-version: ['1.20']
+        go-version: ['1.21']
       fail-fast: false
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
diff --git a/.github/workflows/golangci-lint.yml b/.github/workflows/golangci-lint.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..052c86175
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/golangci-lint.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+# Copyright The ORAS Authors.
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+name: golangci-lint
+
+on:
+  pull_request:
+    paths-ignore:
+      - 'docs/**'
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  golangci:
+    name: lint
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    strategy:
+      matrix:
+        go-version: ['1.21']
+      fail-fast: true
+    steps:
+    - name: Checkout
+      uses: actions/checkout@v3
+    - name: Setup Go ${{ matrix.go-version }}
+      uses: actions/setup-go@v4
+      with:
+        go-version: ${{ matrix.go-version }}
+        check-latest: true
+    - name: golangci-lint
+      uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@v3
diff --git a/.github/workflows/release-ghcr.yml b/.github/workflows/release-ghcr.yml
index d9ba9575b..e39ae4ae4 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/release-ghcr.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release-ghcr.yml
@@ -35,8 +35,7 @@ jobs:
           if [[ "${VERSION}" == "${BRANCH_NAME}" ]]; then
             VERSION=$(git rev-parse --short HEAD)
           fi
-          echo ::set-output name=version::${VERSION}
-          echo ::set-output name=ref::ghcr.io/${{ github.repository }}:${VERSION}
+          echo "ref=ghcr.io/${{ github.repository }}:${VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
       - name: docker login
         uses: docker/login-action@v2
         with:
diff --git a/.github/workflows/release-github.yml b/.github/workflows/release-github.yml
index 26ee00e19..b622fb753 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/release-github.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release-github.yml
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ jobs:
       - name: setup go environment
         uses: actions/setup-go@v3
         with:
-          go-version: '1.20.5'
+          go-version: '1.21.0'
       - name: run goreleaser
         uses: goreleaser/goreleaser-action@v2
         with:
diff --git a/.github/workflows/stale.yml b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..62f5ff723
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+# Copyright The ORAS Authors.
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+name: "Close stale issues and PRs"
+on:
+  schedule:
+    - cron: "30 1 * * *"
+
+jobs:
+  stale:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/stale@v8
+        with:
+          stale-issue-message: "This issue is stale because it has been open 60 days with no activity. Remove stale label or comment or this will be closed in 30 days."
+          stale-pr-message: "This PR is stale because it has been open 45 days with no activity. Remove stale label or comment or this will be closed in 30 days."
+          close-issue-message: "This issue was closed because it has been stalled for 30 days with no activity."
+          close-pr-message: "This PR was closed because it has been stalled for 30 days with no activity."
+          days-before-issue-stale: 60
+          days-before-pr-stale: 45
+          days-before-issue-close: 30
+          days-before-pr-close: 30
+          exempt-all-milestones: true
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 95d6182fe..f0bcf8e35 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 # Contributing
 
-Please refer to the [ORAS Contributing guide](https://oras.land/docs/contributing).
+Please refer to the [ORAS Contributing guide](https://oras.land/docs/community/contributing_guide).
diff --git a/Dockerfile b/Dockerfile
index e10ce407a..1525123e2 100644
--- a/Dockerfile
+++ b/Dockerfile
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 # See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 # limitations under the License.
 
-FROM --platform=$BUILDPLATFORM docker.io/library/golang:1.20.5-alpine as builder
+FROM --platform=$BUILDPLATFORM docker.io/library/golang:1.21.0-alpine as builder
 ARG TARGETPLATFORM
 RUN apk add git make
 ENV ORASPKG /oras
diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile
index cbf8181c4..df548f223 100644
--- a/Makefile
+++ b/Makefile
@@ -134,8 +134,7 @@ teste2e-covdata:  ## test e2e coverage
 	export GOCOVERDIR=$(CURDIR)/test/e2e/.cover; \
 	rm -rf $$GOCOVERDIR; \
 	mkdir -p $$GOCOVERDIR; \
-	$(MAKE) teste2e; \
-	$(GO_EXE) tool covdata textfmt -i=$$GOCOVERDIR -o "$(CURDIR)/test/e2e/coverage.txt"
+	$(MAKE) teste2e && $(GO_EXE) tool covdata textfmt -i=$$GOCOVERDIR -o "$(CURDIR)/test/e2e/coverage.txt"
 
 .PHONY: help
 help:  ## Display this help
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index cf9831a3f..8059c4785 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -11,11 +11,11 @@
 ## Docs
 
 Documentation for the ORAS CLI is located on
-the project website: [oras.land/cli](https://oras.land/docs/category/cli)
+the project website: [oras.land/cli](https://oras.land/docs/category/oras-commands)
 
 ## Development Environment Setup
 
-Refer to the [development guide](https://oras.land/docs/CLI/developer_guide) to get started [contributing to ORAS](https://oras.land/docs/contributing).
+Refer to the [development guide](https://oras.land/docs/community/developer_guide) to get started [contributing to ORAS](https://oras.land/docs/community/contributing_guide).
 
 ## Code of Conduct
 
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/display/print.go b/cmd/oras/internal/display/print.go
index 35de4ec5a..48374a327 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/display/print.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/display/print.go
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ func (p *tagManifestStatusForRepo) PushReference(ctx context.Context, expected o
 	if p.printHint != nil {
 		p.printHint.Do(func() {
 			ref := p.refPrefix + "@" + expected.Digest.String()
-			Print("Tagging", ref)
+			_ = Print("Tagging", ref)
 		})
 	}
 	if err := p.Repository.PushReference(ctx, expected, content, reference); err != nil {
@@ -136,9 +136,10 @@ func (p *tagManifestStatusForTarget) Tag(ctx context.Context, desc ocispec.Descr
 	if p.printHint != nil {
 		p.printHint.Do(func() {
 			ref := p.refPrefix + "@" + desc.Digest.String()
-			Print("Tagging", ref)
+			_ = Print("Tagging", ref)
 		})
 	}
+
 	if err := p.Target.Tag(ctx, desc, reference); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/errors/errors.go b/cmd/oras/internal/errors/errors.go
index 631403ac6..e3c6e4c43 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/errors/errors.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/errors/errors.go
@@ -16,11 +16,9 @@ limitations under the License.
 package errors
 
 import (
-	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry"
-	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
 )
 
 // NewErrInvalidReference creates a new error based on the reference string.
@@ -32,9 +30,3 @@ func NewErrInvalidReference(ref registry.Reference) error {
 func NewErrInvalidReferenceStr(ref string) error {
 	return fmt.Errorf("%s: invalid image reference, expecting <name:tag|name@digest>", ref)
 }
-
-// IsReferrersIndexDelete checks if err is a referrers index delete error.
-func IsReferrersIndexDelete(err error) bool {
-	var re *remote.ReferrersError
-	return errors.As(err, &re) && re.IsReferrersIndexDelete()
-}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/applier.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/applier.go
index f47aba14b..1d177e96e 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/applier.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/applier.go
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ type FlagApplier interface {
 // NOTE: The option argument need to be a pointer to the options, so its value
 // becomes addressable.
 func ApplyFlags(optsPtr interface{}, target *pflag.FlagSet) {
-	rangeFields(optsPtr, func(fa FlagApplier) error {
+	_ = rangeFields(optsPtr, func(fa FlagApplier) error {
 		fa.ApplyFlags(target)
 		return nil
 	})
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer.go
index d32fa62de..ad633dd65 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer.go
@@ -99,7 +99,13 @@ func (opts *Packer) LoadManifestAnnotations() (annotations map[string]map[string
 	}
 	if opts.AnnotationFilePath != "" {
 		if err = decodeJSON(opts.AnnotationFilePath, &annotations); err != nil {
-			return nil, err
+			errStr :=  err.Error()
+			docLink := " Please refer to the document at https://oras.land/docs/how_to_guides/manifest_annotations."
+			if !strings.HasSuffix(errStr, ".") {
+				docLink = "."+docLink
+			}
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load annotations from %s: %w" +
+				docLink, opts.AnnotationFilePath, err)
 		}
 	}
 	if len(opts.ManifestAnnotations) != 0 {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer_test.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer_test.go
index 5c7470ee5..e0cd51339 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer_test.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/packer_test.go
@@ -70,7 +70,10 @@ func TestPacker_LoadManifestAnnotations_err(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestPacker_LoadManifestAnnotations_annotationFile(t *testing.T) {
 	testFile := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "testAnnotationFile")
-	os.WriteFile(testFile, []byte(testContent), fs.ModePerm)
+	err := os.WriteFile(testFile, []byte(testContent), fs.ModePerm)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Error writing %s: %v", testFile, err)
+	}
 	opts := Packer{AnnotationFilePath: testFile}
 
 	anno, err := opts.LoadManifestAnnotations()
@@ -120,11 +123,12 @@ func TestPacker_LoadManifestAnnotations_annotationFlag(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: failed when looking for '$manifest' in annotations")
 	}
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(annotations,
-		map[string]map[string]string{"$manifest": {
-			"Key0": "",
-			"Key1": "Val",
-			"Key2": "${env:USERNAME}",
-		},
+		map[string]map[string]string{
+			"$manifest": {
+				"Key0": "",
+				"Key1": "Val",
+				"Key2": "${env:USERNAME}",
+			},
 		}) {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", errors.New("content not match"))
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/referrers.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/referrers.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 4920c29d0..000000000
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/referrers.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Copyright The ORAS Authors.
-Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-You may obtain a copy of the License at
-
-http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-
-Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-limitations under the License.
-*/
-
-package option
-
-import (
-	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
-	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
-	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
-)
-
-// Referrers option struct.
-type Referrers struct {
-	SkipDeleteReferrers bool
-}
-
-// ApplyFlags applies flags to a command flag set.
-func (opts *Referrers) ApplyFlags(fs *pflag.FlagSet) {
-	fs.BoolVarP(&opts.SkipDeleteReferrers, "skip-delete-referrers", "", false, "skip deleting old referrers index, only work on registry when referrers API is not supported")
-}
-
-// SetReferrersGC sets the referrers GC option for the passed-in target.
-func (opts *Referrers) SetReferrersGC(target any, logger logrus.FieldLogger) {
-	if repo, ok := target.(*remote.Repository); ok {
-		repo.SkipReferrersGC = opts.SkipDeleteReferrers
-	} else if opts.SkipDeleteReferrers {
-		// not a registry, can't skip referrers deletion
-		logger.Warnln("referrers deletion can only be enforced upon registry")
-	}
-}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote.go
index c4261a880..f56b90bf5 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote.go
@@ -25,8 +25,10 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
+	"sync"
 
 	credentials "github.com/oras-project/oras-credentials-go"
+	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote/auth"
@@ -53,6 +55,7 @@ type Remote struct {
 	distributionSpec      distributionSpec
 	headerFlags           []string
 	headers               http.Header
+	warned                map[string]*sync.Map
 }
 
 // EnableDistributionSpecFlag set distribution specification flag as applicable.
@@ -247,33 +250,55 @@ func (opts *Remote) Credential() auth.Credential {
 	return credential.Credential(opts.Username, opts.Password)
 }
 
+func (opts *Remote) handleWarning(registry string, logger logrus.FieldLogger) func(warning remote.Warning) {
+	if opts.warned == nil {
+		opts.warned = make(map[string]*sync.Map)
+	}
+	warned := opts.warned[registry]
+	if warned == nil {
+		warned = &sync.Map{}
+		opts.warned[registry] = warned
+	}
+	logger = logger.WithField("registry", registry)
+	return func(warning remote.Warning) {
+		if _, loaded := warned.LoadOrStore(warning.WarningValue, struct{}{}); !loaded {
+			logger.Warn(warning.Text)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // NewRegistry assembles a oras remote registry.
-func (opts *Remote) NewRegistry(hostname string, common Common) (reg *remote.Registry, err error) {
-	reg, err = remote.NewRegistry(hostname)
+func (opts *Remote) NewRegistry(registry string, common Common, logger logrus.FieldLogger) (reg *remote.Registry, err error) {
+	reg, err = remote.NewRegistry(registry)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	hostname = reg.Reference.Registry
-	reg.PlainHTTP = opts.isPlainHttp(hostname)
-	if reg.Client, err = opts.authClient(hostname, common.Debug); err != nil {
+	registry = reg.Reference.Registry
+	reg.PlainHTTP = opts.isPlainHttp(registry)
+	reg.HandleWarning = opts.handleWarning(registry, logger)
+	if reg.Client, err = opts.authClient(registry, common.Debug); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	return
 }
 
 // NewRepository assembles a oras remote repository.
-func (opts *Remote) NewRepository(reference string, common Common) (repo *remote.Repository, err error) {
+func (opts *Remote) NewRepository(reference string, common Common, logger logrus.FieldLogger) (repo *remote.Repository, err error) {
 	repo, err = remote.NewRepository(reference)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	hostname := repo.Reference.Registry
-	repo.PlainHTTP = opts.isPlainHttp(hostname)
-	if repo.Client, err = opts.authClient(hostname, common.Debug); err != nil {
+	registry := repo.Reference.Registry
+	repo.PlainHTTP = opts.isPlainHttp(registry)
+	repo.HandleWarning = opts.handleWarning(registry, logger)
+	if repo.Client, err = opts.authClient(registry, common.Debug); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
+	repo.SkipReferrersGC = true
 	if opts.distributionSpec.referrersAPI != nil {
-		repo.SetReferrersCapability(*opts.distributionSpec.referrersAPI)
+		if err := repo.SetReferrersCapability(*opts.distributionSpec.referrersAPI); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
 	}
 	return
 }
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote_test.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote_test.go
index efca51cc2..9c60d939b 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote_test.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/remote_test.go
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ import (
 	"reflect"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote/auth"
 )
@@ -51,7 +52,9 @@ func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
 		case p == "/v2/" && m == "GET":
 			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
 		case p == fmt.Sprintf("/v2/%s/tags/list", testRepo) && m == "GET":
-			json.NewEncoder(w).Encode(testTagList)
+			if err := json.NewEncoder(w).Encode(testTagList); err != nil {
+				http.Error(w, "error encoding", http.StatusBadRequest)
+			}
 		}
 	}))
 	defer ts.Close()
@@ -178,7 +181,7 @@ func TestRemote_NewRegistry(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
-	reg, err := opts.NewRegistry(uri.Host, opts.Common)
+	reg, err := opts.NewRegistry(uri.Host, opts.Common, logrus.New())
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -206,7 +209,7 @@ func TestRemote_NewRepository(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
-	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(uri.Host+"/"+testRepo, opts.Common)
+	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(uri.Host+"/"+testRepo, opts.Common, logrus.New())
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -233,7 +236,10 @@ func TestRemote_NewRepository_Retry(t *testing.T) {
 			http.Error(w, "error", http.StatusTooManyRequests)
 			return
 		}
-		json.NewEncoder(w).Encode(testTagList)
+		err := json.NewEncoder(w).Encode(testTagList)
+		if err != nil {
+			http.Error(w, "error encoding", http.StatusBadRequest)
+		}
 	}))
 	defer ts.Close()
 	opts := struct {
@@ -250,7 +256,7 @@ func TestRemote_NewRepository_Retry(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
-	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(uri.Host+"/"+testRepo, opts.Common)
+	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(uri.Host+"/"+testRepo, opts.Common, logrus.New())
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/spec.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/spec.go
index ccbb204fb..837959761 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/spec.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/spec.go
@@ -18,35 +18,37 @@ package option
 import (
 	"fmt"
 
-	ocispec "github.com/opencontainers/image-spec/specs-go/v1"
 	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
+	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
+)
+
+const (
+	ImageSpecV1_1 = "v1.1"
+	ImageSpecV1_0 = "v1.0"
 )
 
 // ImageSpec option struct.
 type ImageSpec struct {
-	// Manifest type for building artifact
-	ManifestMediaType string
-
-	// specFlag should be provided in form of `<version>-<manifest type>`
-	specFlag string
+	flag        string
+	PackVersion oras.PackManifestVersion
 }
 
 // Parse parses flags into the option.
 func (opts *ImageSpec) Parse() error {
-	switch opts.specFlag {
-	case "v1.1-image":
-		opts.ManifestMediaType = ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest
-	case "v1.1-artifact":
-		opts.ManifestMediaType = ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest
+	switch opts.flag {
+	case ImageSpecV1_1:
+		opts.PackVersion = oras.PackManifestVersion1_1_RC4
+	case ImageSpecV1_0:
+		opts.PackVersion = oras.PackManifestVersion1_0
 	default:
-		return fmt.Errorf("unknown image specification flag: %q", opts.specFlag)
+		return fmt.Errorf("unknown image specification flag: %q", opts.flag)
 	}
 	return nil
 }
 
 // ApplyFlags applies flags to a command flag set.
 func (opts *ImageSpec) ApplyFlags(fs *pflag.FlagSet) {
-	fs.StringVar(&opts.specFlag, "image-spec", "v1.1-image", "[Experimental] specify manifest type for building artifact. options: v1.1-image, v1.1-artifact")
+	fs.StringVar(&opts.flag, "image-spec", ImageSpecV1_1, fmt.Sprintf("[Experimental] specify manifest type for building artifact. options: %s, %s", ImageSpecV1_1, ImageSpecV1_0))
 }
 
 // distributionSpec option struct.
diff --git a/cmd/oras/internal/option/target.go b/cmd/oras/internal/option/target.go
index 9494e1789..36290204e 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/internal/option/target.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/internal/option/target.go
@@ -21,7 +21,9 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
 	"strings"
+	"sync"
 
+	"github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content/oci"
@@ -111,7 +113,7 @@ func parseOCILayoutReference(raw string) (path string, ref string, err error) {
 }
 
 // NewTarget generates a new target based on opts.
-func (opts *Target) NewTarget(common Common) (oras.GraphTarget, error) {
+func (opts *Target) NewTarget(common Common, logger logrus.FieldLogger) (oras.GraphTarget, error) {
 	switch opts.Type {
 	case TargetTypeOCILayout:
 		var err error
@@ -121,7 +123,7 @@ func (opts *Target) NewTarget(common Common) (oras.GraphTarget, error) {
 		}
 		return oci.New(opts.Path)
 	case TargetTypeRemote:
-		repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.RawReference, common)
+		repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.RawReference, common, logger)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
@@ -142,7 +144,7 @@ type ReadOnlyGraphTagFinderTarget interface {
 }
 
 // NewReadonlyTargets generates a new read only target based on opts.
-func (opts *Target) NewReadonlyTarget(ctx context.Context, common Common) (ReadOnlyGraphTagFinderTarget, error) {
+func (opts *Target) NewReadonlyTarget(ctx context.Context, common Common, logger logrus.FieldLogger) (ReadOnlyGraphTagFinderTarget, error) {
 	switch opts.Type {
 	case TargetTypeOCILayout:
 		var err error
@@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ func (opts *Target) NewReadonlyTarget(ctx context.Context, common Common) (ReadO
 		}
 		return oci.NewFromTar(ctx, opts.Path)
 	case TargetTypeRemote:
-		repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.RawReference, common)
+		repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.RawReference, common, logger)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
@@ -203,6 +205,8 @@ func (opts *BinaryTarget) ApplyFlags(fs *pflag.FlagSet) {
 
 // Parse parses user-provided flags and arguments into option struct.
 func (opts *BinaryTarget) Parse() error {
+	opts.From.warned = make(map[string]*sync.Map)
+	opts.To.warned = opts.From.warned
 	// resolve are parsed in array order, latter will overwrite former
 	opts.From.resolveFlag = append(opts.resolveFlag, opts.From.resolveFlag...)
 	opts.To.resolveFlag = append(opts.resolveFlag, opts.To.resolveFlag...)
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/attach.go b/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
index 99ed8ba14..b67ca0c99 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/attach.go
@@ -19,7 +19,6 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"os"
 	"strings"
 
 	ocispec "github.com/opencontainers/image-spec/specs-go/v1"
@@ -27,7 +26,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content/file"
-	oerr "oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/errors"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
 )
@@ -35,9 +33,7 @@ import (
 type attachOptions struct {
 	option.Common
 	option.Packer
-	option.ImageSpec
 	option.Target
-	option.Referrers
 
 	artifactType string
 	concurrency  int
@@ -55,10 +51,6 @@ func attachCmd() *cobra.Command {
 Example - Attach file 'hi.txt' with type 'doc/example' to manifest 'hello:v1' in registry 'localhost:5000':
   oras attach --artifact-type doc/example localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt
 
-Example - Attach file "hi.txt" with specific media type when building the manifest:
-  oras attach --artifact-type doc/example --image-spec v1.1-image localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt    # OCI image
-  oras attach --artifact-type doc/example --image-spec v1.1-artifact localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt # OCI artifact
-
 Example - Attach file "hi.txt" using a specific method for the Referrers API:
   oras attach --artifact-type doc/example --distribution-spec v1.1-referrers-api localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt # via API
   oras attach --artifact-type doc/example --distribution-spec v1.1-referrers-tag localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt # via tag scheme
@@ -94,7 +86,7 @@ Example - Attach file to the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI image layout folder
 
 	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.artifactType, "artifact-type", "", "", "artifact type")
 	cmd.Flags().IntVarP(&opts.concurrency, "concurrency", "", 5, "concurrency level")
-	cmd.MarkFlagRequired("artifact-type")
+	_ = cmd.MarkFlagRequired("artifact-type")
 	opts.EnableDistributionSpecFlag()
 	option.ApplyFlags(&opts, cmd.Flags())
 	return cmd
@@ -117,15 +109,13 @@ func runAttach(ctx context.Context, opts attachOptions) error {
 	}
 	defer store.Close()
 
-	dst, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	dst, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 	if err := opts.EnsureReferenceNotEmpty(); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	opts.SetReferrersGC(dst, logger)
-
 	subject, err := dst.Resolve(ctx, opts.Reference)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -136,13 +126,13 @@ func runAttach(ctx context.Context, opts attachOptions) error {
 	}
 
 	// prepare push
-	packOpts := oras.PackOptions{
+	packOpts := oras.PackManifestOptions{
 		Subject:             &subject,
 		ManifestAnnotations: annotations[option.AnnotationManifest],
-		PackImageManifest:   opts.ManifestMediaType == ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest,
+		Layers:              descs,
 	}
 	pack := func() (ocispec.Descriptor, error) {
-		return oras.Pack(ctx, store, opts.artifactType, descs, packOpts)
+		return oras.PackManifest(ctx, store, oras.PackManifestVersion1_1_RC4, opts.artifactType, packOpts)
 	}
 
 	graphCopyOptions := oras.DefaultCopyGraphOptions
@@ -168,9 +158,6 @@ func runAttach(ctx context.Context, opts attachOptions) error {
 
 	root, err := pushArtifact(dst, pack, copy)
 	if err != nil {
-		if oerr.IsReferrersIndexDelete(err) {
-			fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "attached successfully but failed to remove the outdated referrers index, please use `--skip-delete-referrers` if you want to skip the deletion")
-		}
 		return err
 	}
 
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
index 0f55d044b..e1fbb09ac 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/delete.go
@@ -71,8 +71,8 @@ Example - Delete a blob and print its descriptor:
 }
 
 func deleteBlob(ctx context.Context, opts deleteBlobOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
index 7f53873a4..d43ae382d 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/fetch.go
@@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ Example - Fetch and print a blob from OCI image layout archive file 'layout.tar'
 }
 
 func fetchBlob(ctx context.Context, opts fetchBlobOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	var target oras.ReadOnlyTarget
-	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
index 9de6c45fe..ea3bffaee 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/blob/push.go
@@ -96,9 +96,9 @@ Example - Push blob 'hi.txt' into an OCI image layout folder 'layout-dir':
 }
 
 func pushBlob(ctx context.Context, opts pushBlobOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
-	repo, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	repo, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/cp.go b/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
index 20cc2a753..90f7cb090 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/cp.go
@@ -18,7 +18,6 @@ package root
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
-	"os"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 
@@ -26,8 +25,8 @@ import (
 	ocispec "github.com/opencontainers/image-spec/specs-go/v1"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
+	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/content"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
-	oerr "oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/errors"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/graph"
 )
@@ -36,7 +35,6 @@ type copyOptions struct {
 	option.Common
 	option.Platform
 	option.BinaryTarget
-	option.Referrers
 
 	recursive   bool
 	concurrency int
@@ -102,7 +100,7 @@ func runCopy(ctx context.Context, opts copyOptions) error {
 	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	// Prepare source
-	src, err := opts.From.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	src, err := opts.From.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -111,17 +109,18 @@ func runCopy(ctx context.Context, opts copyOptions) error {
 	}
 
 	// Prepare destination
-	dst, err := opts.To.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	dst, err := opts.To.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	opts.SetReferrersGC(dst, logger)
 
 	// Prepare copy options
 	committed := &sync.Map{}
 	extendedCopyOptions := oras.DefaultExtendedCopyOptions
 	extendedCopyOptions.Concurrency = opts.concurrency
-	extendedCopyOptions.FindPredecessors = graph.FindReferrerPredecessors
+	extendedCopyOptions.FindPredecessors = func(ctx context.Context, src content.ReadOnlyGraphStorage, desc ocispec.Descriptor) ([]ocispec.Descriptor, error) {
+		return graph.Referrers(ctx, src, desc, "")
+	}
 	extendedCopyOptions.PreCopy = display.StatusPrinter("Copying", opts.Verbose)
 	extendedCopyOptions.PostCopy = func(ctx context.Context, desc ocispec.Descriptor) error {
 		committed.Store(desc.Digest.String(), desc.Annotations[ocispec.AnnotationTitle])
@@ -171,9 +170,6 @@ func runCopy(ctx context.Context, opts copyOptions) error {
 		}
 	}
 	if err != nil {
-		if oerr.IsReferrersIndexDelete(err) {
-			fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "failed to remove the outdated referrers index, please use `--skip-delete-referrers` if you want to skip the deletion")
-		}
 		return err
 	}
 
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/discover.go b/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
index d853e77d2..801710ead 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/discover.go
@@ -91,8 +91,8 @@ Example - Discover referrers of the manifest tagged 'v1' in an OCI image layout
 }
 
 func runDiscover(ctx context.Context, opts discoverOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ func runDiscover(ctx context.Context, opts discoverOptions) error {
 	fmt.Println("Digest:", desc.Digest)
 	if len(refs) > 0 {
 		fmt.Println()
-		printDiscoveredReferrersTable(refs, opts.Verbose)
+		_ = printDiscoveredReferrersTable(refs, opts.Verbose)
 	}
 	return nil
 }
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ func fetchAllReferrers(ctx context.Context, repo oras.ReadOnlyGraphTarget, desc
 	return nil
 }
 
-func printDiscoveredReferrersTable(refs []ocispec.Descriptor, verbose bool) {
+func printDiscoveredReferrersTable(refs []ocispec.Descriptor, verbose bool) error {
 	typeNameTitle := "Artifact Type"
 	typeNameLength := len(typeNameTitle)
 	for _, ref := range refs {
@@ -188,9 +188,12 @@ func printDiscoveredReferrersTable(refs []ocispec.Descriptor, verbose bool) {
 	for _, ref := range refs {
 		print(ref.ArtifactType, ref.Digest)
 		if verbose {
-			printJSON(ref)
+			if err := printJSON(ref); err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("error printing JSON: %w", err)
+			}
 		}
 	}
+	return nil
 }
 
 // printDiscoveredReferrersJSON prints referrer list in JSON equivalent to the
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/login.go b/cmd/oras/root/login.go
index aa862fd4d..d6cc65d5d 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/login.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/login.go
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ Example - Log in with username and password in an interactive terminal and no TL
 }
 
 func runLogin(ctx context.Context, opts loginOptions) (err error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
 	// prompt for credential
 	if opts.Password == "" {
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ func runLogin(ctx context.Context, opts loginOptions) (err error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	remote, err := opts.Remote.NewRegistry(opts.Hostname, opts.Common)
+	remote, err := opts.Remote.NewRegistry(opts.Hostname, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
index 8ece10400..4458fae77 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/delete.go
@@ -76,8 +76,8 @@ Example - Delete a manifest by digest 'sha256:99e4703fbf30916f549cd6bfa9cdbab614
 }
 
 func deleteManifest(ctx context.Context, opts deleteOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	repo, err := opts.NewRepository(opts.targetRef, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
index 850ac915f..52ec2f80b 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch.go
@@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ Example - Fetch raw manifest from an OCI layout archive file 'layout.tar':
 }
 
 func fetchManifest(ctx context.Context, opts fetchOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
-	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
index a909a4d38..e0f871f34 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/fetch_config.go
@@ -86,9 +86,9 @@ Example - Fetch and print the prettified descriptor of the config:
 }
 
 func fetchConfig(ctx context.Context, opts fetchConfigOptions) (fetchErr error) {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 
-	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	repo, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
index f6391c939..d9e737918 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/manifest/push.go
@@ -29,7 +29,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/errdef"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry/remote"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
-	oerr "oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/errors"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/file"
 )
@@ -39,7 +38,6 @@ type pushOptions struct {
 	option.Descriptor
 	option.Pretty
 	option.Target
-	option.Referrers
 
 	concurrency int
 	extraRefs   []string
@@ -109,11 +107,10 @@ func pushManifest(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
 	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	var target oras.Target
 	var err error
-	target, err = opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	target, err = opts.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	opts.SetReferrersGC(target, logger)
 	if repo, ok := target.(*remote.Repository); ok {
 		target = repo.Manifests()
 	}
@@ -154,9 +151,6 @@ func pushManifest(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
 			return err
 		}
 		if _, err := oras.TagBytes(ctx, target, mediaType, contentBytes, ref); err != nil {
-			if oerr.IsReferrersIndexDelete(err) {
-				fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, "pushed successfully but failed to remove the outdated referrers index, please use `--skip-delete-referrers` if you want to skip the deletion")
-			}
 			return err
 		}
 		if err = display.PrintStatus(desc, "Uploaded ", verbose); err != nil {
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/pull.go b/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
index c10f330a4..6baf93091 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/pull.go
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ Example - Pull artifact files from an OCI layout archive 'layout.tar':
 }
 
 func runPull(ctx context.Context, opts pullOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	// Copy Options
 	var printed sync.Map
 	copyOptions := oras.DefaultCopyOptions
@@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ func runPull(ctx context.Context, opts pullOptions) error {
 		return ret, nil
 	}
 
-	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	target, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/push.go b/cmd/oras/root/push.go
index 0423df717..c8e10a86c 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/push.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/push.go
@@ -71,10 +71,6 @@ Example - Push file "hi.txt" with config type "application/vnd.me.config":
 Example - Push file "hi.txt" with the custom manifest config "config.json" of the custom media type "application/vnd.me.config":
   oras push --config config.json:application/vnd.me.config localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt
 
-Example - Push file "hi.txt" with specific media type when building the manifest:
-  oras push --image-spec v1.1-image localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt    # OCI image
-  oras push --image-spec v1.1-artifact localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt # OCI artifact
-
 Example - Push file to the insecure registry:
   oras push --insecure localhost:5000/hello:v1 hi.txt
 
@@ -102,15 +98,20 @@ Example - Push file "hi.txt" into an OCI image layout folder 'layout-dir' with t
 			opts.RawReference = refs[0]
 			opts.extraRefs = refs[1:]
 			opts.FileRefs = args[1:]
-			if opts.manifestConfigRef != "" {
-				if opts.artifactType != "" {
-					return errors.New("--artifact-type and --config cannot both be provided")
+			if err := option.Parse(&opts); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			switch opts.PackVersion {
+			case oras.PackManifestVersion1_0:
+				if opts.manifestConfigRef != "" && opts.artifactType != "" {
+					return errors.New("--artifact-type and --config cannot both be provided for 1.0 OCI image")
 				}
-				if opts.ManifestMediaType == ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest {
-					return errors.New("cannot build an OCI artifact with manifest config")
+			case oras.PackManifestVersion1_1_RC4:
+				if opts.manifestConfigRef == "" && opts.artifactType == "" {
+					opts.artifactType = oras.MediaTypeUnknownArtifact
 				}
 			}
-			return option.Parse(&opts)
+			return nil
 		},
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			return runPush(cmd.Context(), opts)
@@ -125,14 +126,14 @@ Example - Push file "hi.txt" into an OCI image layout folder 'layout-dir' with t
 }
 
 func runPush(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
 	annotations, err := opts.LoadManifestAnnotations()
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
 	// prepare pack
-	packOpts := oras.PackOptions{
+	packOpts := oras.PackManifestOptions{
 		ConfigAnnotations:   annotations[option.AnnotationConfig],
 		ManifestAnnotations: annotations[option.AnnotationManifest],
 	}
@@ -152,18 +153,15 @@ func runPush(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
 		}
 		desc.Annotations = packOpts.ConfigAnnotations
 		packOpts.ConfigDescriptor = &desc
-		packOpts.PackImageManifest = true
-	}
-	if opts.ManifestMediaType == ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest {
-		packOpts.PackImageManifest = true
 	}
 	descs, err := loadFiles(ctx, store, annotations, opts.FileRefs, opts.Verbose)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	packOpts.Layers = descs
 	memoryStore := memory.New()
 	pack := func() (ocispec.Descriptor, error) {
-		root, err := oras.Pack(ctx, memoryStore, opts.artifactType, descs, packOpts)
+		root, err := oras.PackManifest(ctx, memoryStore, opts.PackVersion, opts.artifactType, packOpts)
 		if err != nil {
 			return ocispec.Descriptor{}, err
 		}
@@ -174,7 +172,7 @@ func runPush(ctx context.Context, opts pushOptions) error {
 	}
 
 	// prepare push
-	dst, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	dst, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go b/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
index f2da5e5f3..cea8dd334 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/repo/ls.go
@@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ Example - List the repositories under the registry that include values lexically
 }
 
 func listRepository(ctx context.Context, opts repositoryOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	reg, err := opts.Remote.NewRegistry(opts.hostname, opts.Common)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	reg, err := opts.Remote.NewRegistry(opts.hostname, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go b/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
index 2e7bde777..45e37dba9 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/repo/tags.go
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Example - [Experimental] Show tags associated with a digest:
 
 func showTags(ctx context.Context, opts showTagsOptions) error {
 	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	finder, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common)
+	finder, err := opts.NewReadonlyTarget(ctx, opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/oras/root/tag.go b/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
index 35475fec6..4524d4fb9 100644
--- a/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
+++ b/cmd/oras/root/tag.go
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"oras.land/oras-go/v2"
+	"oras.land/oras-go/v2/registry"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/display"
 	"oras.land/oras/cmd/oras/internal/option"
 )
@@ -58,6 +59,9 @@ Example - Tag the manifest 'v1.0.1' to 'v1.0.2' in an OCI image layout folder 'l
 		Args: cobra.MinimumNArgs(2),
 		PreRunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 			opts.RawReference = args[0]
+			if _, err := registry.ParseReference(opts.RawReference); err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("unable to add tag for '%s': %w", opts.RawReference, err)
+			}
 			opts.targetRefs = args[1:]
 			return option.Parse(&opts)
 		},
@@ -72,8 +76,8 @@ Example - Tag the manifest 'v1.0.1' to 'v1.0.2' in an OCI image layout folder 'l
 }
 
 func tagManifest(ctx context.Context, opts tagOptions) error {
-	ctx, _ = opts.WithContext(ctx)
-	target, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common)
+	ctx, logger := opts.WithContext(ctx)
+	target, err := opts.NewTarget(opts.Common, logger)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index d76346c6e..eb141b539 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -1,21 +1,21 @@
 module oras.land/oras
 
-go 1.20
+go 1.21
 
 require (
 	github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0
-	github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2
+	github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4
 	github.com/oras-project/oras-credentials-go v0.2.0
 	github.com/sirupsen/logrus v1.9.3
 	github.com/spf13/cobra v1.7.0
 	github.com/spf13/pflag v1.0.5
-	golang.org/x/term v0.10.0
+	golang.org/x/term v0.11.0
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1
-	oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b
+	oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f
 )
 
 require (
 	github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/sys v0.10.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0 // indirect
 )
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index ef1f32966..56f34e990 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@ github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 h1:wN+x4NVGpMsO7ErUn/mUI3vEoE6Jt13X2
 github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0/go.mod h1:vpF70FUmC8bwa3OWnCshd2FqLfsEA9PFc4w1p2J65bw=
 github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0 h1:apOUWs51W5PlhuyGyz9FCeeBIOUDA/6nW8Oi/yOhh5U=
 github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0/go.mod h1:0JzlMkj0TRzQZfJkVvzbP0HBR3IKzErnv2BNG4W4MAM=
-github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2 h1:2zx/Stx4Wc5pIPDvIxHXvXtQFW/7XWJGmnM7r3wg034=
-github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2/go.mod h1:3OVijpioIKYWTqjiG0zfF6wvoJ4fAXGbjdZuI2NgsRQ=
+github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4 h1:oOxKUJWnFC4YGHCCMNql1x4YaDfYBTS5Y4x/Cgeo1E0=
+github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4/go.mod h1:X4pATf0uXsnn3g5aiGIsVnJBR4mxhKzfwmvK/B2NTm8=
 github.com/oras-project/oras-credentials-go v0.2.0 h1:BvWAXo0e5unWR6Hfxyb0K04mHNHreQz/Zclw6IzCYJo=
 github.com/oras-project/oras-credentials-go v0.2.0/go.mod h1:JVdg7a5k7hzTrEeeouwag0aCv7OLrS77r7/6w3gVirU=
 github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0 h1:4DBwDE0NGyQoBHbLQYPwSUPoCMWR5BEzIk/f1lZbAQM=
@@ -25,14 +25,14 @@ github.com/stretchr/testify v1.7.0/go.mod h1:6Fq8oRcR53rry900zMqJjRRixrwX3KX962/
 golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0 h1:ftCYgMx6zT/asHUrPw8BLLscYtGznsLAnjq5RH9P66E=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0/go.mod h1:FU7BRWz2tNW+3quACPkgCx/L+uEAv1htQ0V83Z9Rj+Y=
 golang.org/x/sys v0.0.0-20220715151400-c0bba94af5f8/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.10.0 h1:SqMFp9UcQJZa+pmYuAKjd9xq1f0j5rLcDIk0mj4qAsA=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.10.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
-golang.org/x/term v0.10.0 h1:3R7pNqamzBraeqj/Tj8qt1aQ2HpmlC+Cx/qL/7hn4/c=
-golang.org/x/term v0.10.0/go.mod h1:lpqdcUyK/oCiQxvxVrppt5ggO2KCZ5QblwqPnfZ6d5o=
+golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0 h1:eG7RXZHdqOJ1i+0lgLgCpSXAp6M3LYlAo6osgSi0xOM=
+golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
+golang.org/x/term v0.11.0 h1:F9tnn/DA/Im8nCwm+fX+1/eBwi4qFjRT++MhtVC4ZX0=
+golang.org/x/term v0.11.0/go.mod h1:zC9APTIj3jG3FdV/Ons+XE1riIZXG4aZ4GTHiPZJPIU=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405 h1:yhCVgyC4o1eVCa2tZl7eS0r+SDo693bJlVdllGtEeKM=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.0-20200313102051-9f266ea9e77c/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 h1:fxVm/GzAzEWqLHuvctI91KS9hhNmmWOoWu0XTYJS7CA=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
-oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b h1:NYynybpqtG3lLTZMWNlrvUlcyGakCke57tg4TX6w2kA=
-oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b/go.mod h1:goptA58HogB/6sLN7KV6FgoiurcVxd5QBqv8wMVB0as=
+oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f h1:2Lx/b6oqh6vZST55SxNYNQJSZmOQZDQckdw34tI2bc4=
+oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f/go.mod h1:GeAwLuC4G/JpNwkd+bSZ6SkDMGaaYglt6YK2WvZP7uQ=
diff --git a/internal/cache/target_test.go b/internal/cache/target_test.go
index cbc7cd0b0..508116774 100644
--- a/internal/cache/target_test.go
+++ b/internal/cache/target_test.go
@@ -177,7 +177,9 @@ func TestProxy_fetchReference(t *testing.T) {
 			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
 			// write data to the response if this is the first request
 			if requestCount == 1 {
-				w.Write(blob)
+				if _, err := w.Write(blob); err != nil {
+					t.Errorf("Error writing blobs: %v", err)
+				}
 			}
 			atomic.AddInt64(&successCount, 1)
 			return
diff --git a/internal/credential/store_test.go b/internal/credential/store_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..3a873ab14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/credential/store_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+/*
+Copyright The ORAS Authors.
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+*/
+
+package credential
+
+import (
+	"os"
+	"path"
+	"reflect"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestNewStoreError(t *testing.T) {
+	tmpDir := t.TempDir()
+	filename := path.Join(tmpDir, "testfile.txt")
+	file, err := os.Create(filename)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("error: cannot create file : %v", err)
+	}
+	defer file.Close()
+
+	err = os.Chmod(filename, 000)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("error: cannot change file permissions: %v", err)
+	}
+	credStore, err := NewStore(filename)
+	if credStore != nil {
+		t.Errorf("Expected NewStore to return nil but actually returned %v ", credStore)
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		ok := strings.Contains(err.Error(), "failed to open config file")
+		reflect.DeepEqual(ok, true)
+
+	} else {
+		t.Errorf("Expected err to be not nil")
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/graph/graph.go b/internal/graph/graph.go
index bcefdd43d..4269d36df 100644
--- a/internal/graph/graph.go
+++ b/internal/graph/graph.go
@@ -25,6 +25,34 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/internal/docker"
 )
 
+// MediaTypeArtifactManifest specifies the media type for a content descriptor.
+const MediaTypeArtifactManifest = "application/vnd.oci.artifact.manifest.v1+json"
+
+// Artifact describes an artifact manifest.
+// This structure provides `application/vnd.oci.artifact.manifest.v1+json` mediatype when marshalled to JSON.
+//
+// This manifest type was introduced in image-spec v1.1.0-rc1 and was removed in
+// image-spec v1.1.0-rc3. It is not part of the current image-spec and is kept
+// here for Go compatibility.
+//
+// Reference: https://github.com/opencontainers/image-spec/pull/999
+type Artifact struct {
+	// MediaType is the media type of the object this schema refers to.
+	MediaType string `json:"mediaType"`
+
+	// ArtifactType is the IANA media type of the artifact this schema refers to.
+	ArtifactType string `json:"artifactType"`
+
+	// Blobs is a collection of blobs referenced by this manifest.
+	Blobs []ocispec.Descriptor `json:"blobs,omitempty"`
+
+	// Subject (reference) is an optional link from the artifact to another manifest forming an association between the artifact and the other manifest.
+	Subject *ocispec.Descriptor `json:"subject,omitempty"`
+
+	// Annotations contains arbitrary metadata for the artifact manifest.
+	Annotations map[string]string `json:"annotations,omitempty"`
+}
+
 // Successors returns the nodes directly pointed by the current node, picking
 // out subject and config descriptor if applicable.
 // Returning nil when no subject and config found.
@@ -43,18 +71,30 @@ func Successors(ctx context.Context, fetcher content.Fetcher, node ocispec.Descr
 		nodes = manifest.Layers
 		subject = manifest.Subject
 		config = &manifest.Config
-	case ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest:
+	case MediaTypeArtifactManifest:
 		var fetched []byte
 		fetched, err = content.FetchAll(ctx, fetcher, node)
 		if err != nil {
 			return
 		}
-		var manifest ocispec.Artifact
+		var manifest Artifact
 		if err = json.Unmarshal(fetched, &manifest); err != nil {
 			return
 		}
 		nodes = manifest.Blobs
 		subject = manifest.Subject
+	case ocispec.MediaTypeImageIndex:
+		var fetched []byte
+		fetched, err = content.FetchAll(ctx, fetcher, node)
+		if err != nil {
+			return
+		}
+		var index ocispec.Index
+		if err = json.Unmarshal(fetched, &index); err != nil {
+			return
+		}
+		nodes = index.Manifests
+		subject = index.Subject
 	default:
 		nodes, err = content.Successors(ctx, fetcher, node)
 	}
@@ -83,12 +123,12 @@ func Referrers(ctx context.Context, target content.ReadOnlyGraphStorage, desc oc
 	}
 	for _, node := range predecessors {
 		switch node.MediaType {
-		case ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest:
+		case MediaTypeArtifactManifest:
 			fetched, err := fetchBytes(ctx, target, node)
 			if err != nil {
 				return nil, err
 			}
-			var artifact ocispec.Artifact
+			var artifact Artifact
 			if err := json.Unmarshal(fetched, &artifact); err != nil {
 				return nil, err
 			}
@@ -109,39 +149,31 @@ func Referrers(ctx context.Context, target content.ReadOnlyGraphStorage, desc oc
 			if image.Subject == nil || !content.Equal(*image.Subject, desc) {
 				continue
 			}
-			node.ArtifactType = image.Config.MediaType
+			node.ArtifactType = image.ArtifactType
+			if node.ArtifactType == "" {
+				node.ArtifactType = image.Config.MediaType
+			}
 			node.Annotations = image.Annotations
+		case ocispec.MediaTypeImageIndex:
+			fetched, err := fetchBytes(ctx, target, node)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
+			var index ocispec.Index
+			if err := json.Unmarshal(fetched, &index); err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
+			if index.Subject == nil || !content.Equal(*index.Subject, desc) {
+				continue
+			}
+			node.ArtifactType = index.ArtifactType
+			node.Annotations = index.Annotations
 		default:
 			continue
 		}
-		if node.ArtifactType != "" && (artifactType == "" || artifactType == node.ArtifactType) {
-			results = append(results, node)
-		}
-	}
-	return results, nil
-}
-
-// FindReferrerPredecessors returns referrer nodes of desc in target.
-func FindReferrerPredecessors(ctx context.Context, src content.ReadOnlyGraphStorage, desc ocispec.Descriptor) ([]ocispec.Descriptor, error) {
-	var results []ocispec.Descriptor
-	if repo, ok := src.(registry.ReferrerLister); ok {
-		// get referrers directly
-		err := repo.Referrers(ctx, desc, "", func(referrers []ocispec.Descriptor) error {
-			results = append(results, referrers...)
-			return nil
-		})
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-		return results, nil
-	}
-	predecessors, err := src.Predecessors(ctx, desc)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	for _, node := range predecessors {
-		switch node.MediaType {
-		case ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest:
+		if artifactType == "" || artifactType == node.ArtifactType {
+			// the field artifactType in referrers descriptor is allowed to be empty
+			// https://github.com/opencontainers/distribution-spec/issues/458
 			results = append(results, node)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/internal/graph/graph_test.go b/internal/graph/graph_test.go
index 50eb0e8e0..d33c4ad8c 100644
--- a/internal/graph/graph_test.go
+++ b/internal/graph/graph_test.go
@@ -39,14 +39,6 @@ func (e *errLister) Referrers(ctx context.Context, desc ocispec.Descriptor, arti
 	return errors.New("")
 }
 
-type errFinder struct {
-	oras.ReadOnlyGraphTarget
-}
-
-func (e *errFinder) Predecessors(ctx context.Context, node ocispec.Descriptor) ([]ocispec.Descriptor, error) {
-	return nil, errors.New("")
-}
-
 type refLister struct {
 	referrers []ocispec.Descriptor
 	oras.ReadOnlyGraphTarget
@@ -89,19 +81,6 @@ func TestReferrers(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 		appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest, manifestJSON)
 	}
-	generateArtifact := func(artifactType string, subject *ocispec.Descriptor, annotations map[string]string, blobs ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
-		manifest := ocispec.Artifact{
-			Subject:      subject,
-			Blobs:        blobs,
-			Annotations:  annotations,
-			ArtifactType: artifactType,
-		}
-		manifestJSON, err := json.Marshal(manifest)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, manifestJSON)
-	}
 	generateIndex := func(manifests ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
 		index := ocispec.Index{
 			Manifests: manifests,
@@ -117,11 +96,10 @@ func TestReferrers(t *testing.T) {
 		imgConfig
 		subject
 		image
-		artifact
 		index
 	)
 	anno := map[string]string{"test": "foo"}
-	appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, []byte("subject content"))
+	appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeImageLayer, []byte("blob"))
 	imageType := "test.image"
 	appendBlob(imageType, []byte("config content"))
 	generateImage(nil, nil, descs[imgConfig], descs[blob])
@@ -129,17 +107,14 @@ func TestReferrers(t *testing.T) {
 	imageDesc := descs[image]
 	imageDesc.Annotations = anno
 	imageDesc.ArtifactType = imageType
-	artifactType := "test.artifact"
-	generateArtifact(artifactType, &descs[subject], anno, descs[blob])
 	generateIndex(descs[subject])
-	artifactDesc := descs[artifact]
-	artifactDesc.Annotations = anno
-	artifactDesc.ArtifactType = artifactType
 
 	referrers := []ocispec.Descriptor{descs[image], descs[image]}
 	memory := memory.New()
 	for i := range descs {
-		memory.Push(ctx, descs[i], bytes.NewReader(blobs[i]))
+		if err := memory.Push(ctx, descs[i], bytes.NewReader(blobs[i])); err != nil {
+			t.Errorf("Error pushing %v\n", err)
+		}
 	}
 	finder := &predecessorFinder{Store: memory}
 
@@ -161,7 +136,6 @@ func TestReferrers(t *testing.T) {
 		{"should return nil for config node", args{ctx, finder, descs[imgConfig], ""}, nil, false},
 		{"should return nil for blob/layer node", args{ctx, finder, descs[blob], ""}, nil, false},
 		{"should find filtered image referrer", args{ctx, finder, descs[subject], imageType}, []ocispec.Descriptor{imageDesc}, false},
-		{"should find filtered artifact referrer", args{ctx, finder, descs[subject], artifactType}, []ocispec.Descriptor{artifactDesc}, false},
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
@@ -177,15 +151,14 @@ func TestReferrers(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	t.Run("should find referrers in predecessors", func(t *testing.T) {
-		want1 := []ocispec.Descriptor{artifactDesc, imageDesc}
-		want2 := []ocispec.Descriptor{imageDesc, artifactDesc}
+		want := []ocispec.Descriptor{imageDesc}
 		got, err := Referrers(ctx, finder, descs[subject], "")
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("Referrers() error = %v", err)
 			return
 		}
-		if !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want1) && !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want2) {
-			t.Errorf("Referrers() = %v, want %v", got, want1)
+		if !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+			t.Errorf("Referrers() = %v, want %v", got, want)
 		}
 	})
 }
@@ -214,18 +187,6 @@ func TestSuccessors(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 		appendBlob(mediaType, manifestJSON)
 	}
-	generateArtifact := func(artifactType string, subject *ocispec.Descriptor, blobs ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
-		manifest := ocispec.Artifact{
-			MediaType: ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest,
-			Subject:   subject,
-			Blobs:     blobs,
-		}
-		manifestJSON, err := json.Marshal(manifest)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, manifestJSON)
-	}
 	generateIndex := func(manifests ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
 		index := ocispec.Index{
 			Manifests: manifests,
@@ -241,21 +202,20 @@ func TestSuccessors(t *testing.T) {
 		config
 		ociImage
 		dockerImage
-		artifact
 		index
 	)
-	appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, []byte("subject content"))
+	appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeImageLayer, []byte("blob"))
 	imageType := "test.image"
 	appendBlob(imageType, []byte("config content"))
 	generateImage(&descs[subject], ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest, descs[config])
 	generateImage(&descs[subject], docker.MediaTypeManifest, descs[config])
-	artifactType := "test.artifact"
-	generateArtifact(artifactType, &descs[subject])
 	generateIndex(descs[subject])
 	memory := memory.New()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	for i := range descs {
-		memory.Push(ctx, descs[i], bytes.NewReader(blobs[i]))
+		if err := memory.Push(ctx, descs[i], bytes.NewReader(blobs[i])); err != nil {
+			t.Errorf("Error pushing %v\n", err)
+		}
 	}
 	fetcher := &fetcher{Fetcher: memory}
 
@@ -272,12 +232,10 @@ func TestSuccessors(t *testing.T) {
 		wantConfig  *ocispec.Descriptor
 		wantErr     bool
 	}{
-		{"should failed to get non-existent artifact", args{ctx, fetcher, ocispec.Descriptor{MediaType: ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest}}, nil, nil, nil, true},
 		{"should failed to get non-existent OCI image", args{ctx, fetcher, ocispec.Descriptor{MediaType: ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest}}, nil, nil, nil, true},
 		{"should failed to get non-existent docker image", args{ctx, fetcher, ocispec.Descriptor{MediaType: docker.MediaTypeManifest}}, nil, nil, nil, true},
 		{"should get success of a docker image", args{ctx, fetcher, descs[dockerImage]}, nil, &descs[subject], &descs[config], false},
 		{"should get success of an OCI image", args{ctx, fetcher, descs[ociImage]}, nil, &descs[subject], &descs[config], false},
-		{"should get success of an artifact", args{ctx, fetcher, descs[artifact]}, nil, &descs[subject], nil, false},
 		{"should get success of an index", args{ctx, fetcher, descs[index]}, []ocispec.Descriptor{descs[subject]}, nil, nil, false},
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
@@ -299,91 +257,3 @@ func TestSuccessors(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 }
-
-func TestFindReferrerPredecessors(t *testing.T) {
-	ctx := context.Background()
-	var blobs [][]byte
-	var descs []ocispec.Descriptor
-	appendBlob := func(mediaType string, blob []byte) {
-		blobs = append(blobs, blob)
-		descs = append(descs, ocispec.Descriptor{
-			MediaType: mediaType,
-			Digest:    digest.FromBytes(blob),
-			Size:      int64(len(blob)),
-		})
-	}
-	generateImage := func(subject *ocispec.Descriptor, annotations map[string]string, config ocispec.Descriptor, layers ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
-		manifest := ocispec.Manifest{
-			Subject:     subject,
-			Config:      config,
-			Layers:      layers,
-			Annotations: annotations,
-		}
-		manifestJSON, err := json.Marshal(manifest)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest, manifestJSON)
-	}
-	generateIndex := func(manifests ...ocispec.Descriptor) {
-		index := ocispec.Index{
-			Manifests: manifests,
-		}
-		manifestJSON, err := json.Marshal(index)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeImageIndex, manifestJSON)
-	}
-	const (
-		subject = iota
-		imgConfig
-		image
-	)
-	var anno map[string]string
-	appendBlob(ocispec.MediaTypeArtifactManifest, []byte("subject content"))
-	imageType := "test.image"
-	appendBlob(imageType, []byte("config content"))
-	generateImage(&descs[subject], anno, descs[imgConfig])
-	imageDesc := descs[image]
-	imageDesc.Annotations = anno
-	imageDesc.ArtifactType = imageType
-	generateIndex(descs[subject])
-
-	referrers := []ocispec.Descriptor{descs[image], descs[image]}
-	memory := memory.New()
-	for i := range descs {
-		memory.Push(ctx, descs[i], bytes.NewReader(blobs[i]))
-	}
-	finder := &predecessorFinder{Store: memory}
-	type args struct {
-		ctx  context.Context
-		src  content.ReadOnlyGraphStorage
-		desc ocispec.Descriptor
-	}
-	tests := []struct {
-		name    string
-		args    args
-		want    []ocispec.Descriptor
-		wantErr bool
-	}{
-
-		{"should failed to get referrers", args{ctx, &errLister{}, ocispec.Descriptor{}}, nil, true},
-		{"should failed to get predecessor", args{ctx, &errFinder{}, ocispec.Descriptor{}}, nil, true},
-		{"should return referrers when target is a referrer lister", args{ctx, &refLister{referrers: referrers}, ocispec.Descriptor{}}, referrers, false},
-		{"should return image for config node", args{ctx, finder, descs[imgConfig]}, []ocispec.Descriptor{descs[image]}, false},
-		{"should return image for subject node", args{ctx, finder, descs[subject]}, []ocispec.Descriptor{descs[image]}, false},
-	}
-	for _, tt := range tests {
-		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			got, err := FindReferrerPredecessors(tt.args.ctx, tt.args.src, tt.args.desc)
-			if (err != nil) != tt.wantErr {
-				t.Errorf("FindReferrerPredecessors() error = %v, wantErr %v", err, tt.wantErr)
-				return
-			}
-			if !reflect.DeepEqual(got, tt.want) {
-				t.Errorf("FindReferrerPredecessors() = %v, want %v", got, tt.want)
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
diff --git a/snapcraft.yaml b/snapcraft.yaml
index 6fb0ab02d..4a3f47b58 100644
--- a/snapcraft.yaml
+++ b/snapcraft.yaml
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ parts:
       - on amd64 to s390x:
         - TARGET_ARCH: "s390x"
     build-snaps:
-      - go/1.20/stable
+      - go/1.21/stable
     build-packages:
       - make
     stage-packages:
diff --git a/test/e2e/README.md b/test/e2e/README.md
index f3fa24672..26e7332a8 100644
--- a/test/e2e/README.md
+++ b/test/e2e/README.md
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ go test oras.land/oras/test/e2e/suite/${suite_name}
 This is super handy when you want to do step-by-step debugging from command-line or via an IDE. If you need to debug certain specs, use [focused specs](https://onsi.github.io/ginkgo/#focused-specs) but don't check it in.
 
 ### 4. Testing Registry Services
-The backend of E2E tests are two registry services: [oras-distribution](https://github.com/oras-project/distribution) and [upstream distribution](https://github.com/distribution/distribution). The former is expected to support image and artifact media types and referrer API; The latter is expected to only support image media type with subject and provide referrers via [tag schema](https://github.com/opencontainers/distribution-spec/blob/v1.1.0-rc1/spec.md#referrers-tag-schema), with deletion disabled. 
+The backend of E2E tests are two registry services: [oras-distribution](https://github.com/oras-project/distribution) and [upstream distribution](https://github.com/distribution/distribution). The former is expected to support image and artifact media types and referrer API; The latter is expected to only support image media type with subject and provide referrers via [tag schema](https://github.com/opencontainers/distribution-spec/blob/v1.1.0-rc1/spec.md#referrers-tag-schema). 
 
 You can run scenario test suite against your own registry services via setting `ORAS_REGISTRY_HOST` or `ORAS_REGISTRY_FALLBACK_HOST` environmental variables.
 
diff --git a/test/e2e/go.mod b/test/e2e/go.mod
index ef6a4cc4f..20fca6995 100644
--- a/test/e2e/go.mod
+++ b/test/e2e/go.mod
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
 module oras.land/oras/test/e2e
 
-go 1.20
+go 1.21
 
 require (
-	github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.11.0
-	github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.8
+	github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.12.0
+	github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.10
 	github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0
-	github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2
+	github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0
-	oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b
+	oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f
 )
 
 require (
@@ -16,10 +16,10 @@ require (
 	github.com/go-task/slim-sprig v0.0.0-20230315185526-52ccab3ef572 // indirect
 	github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.9 // indirect
 	github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20210407192527-94a9f03dee38 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/net v0.10.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/net v0.14.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/sys v0.9.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/text v0.9.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/tools v0.9.3 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/text v0.12.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/tools v0.12.0 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
 )
diff --git a/test/e2e/go.sum b/test/e2e/go.sum
index c0cd2933f..52dde5267 100644
--- a/test/e2e/go.sum
+++ b/test/e2e/go.sum
@@ -14,31 +14,31 @@ github.com/google/go-cmp v0.5.9/go.mod h1:17dUlkBOakJ0+DkrSSNjCkIjxS6bF9zb3elmeN
 github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20210407192527-94a9f03dee38 h1:yAJXTCF9TqKcTiHJAE8dj7HMvPfh66eeA2JYW7eFpSE=
 github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20210407192527-94a9f03dee38/go.mod h1:kpwsk12EmLew5upagYY7GY0pfYCcupk39gWOCRROcvE=
 github.com/ianlancetaylor/demangle v0.0.0-20200824232613-28f6c0f3b639/go.mod h1:aSSvb/t6k1mPoxDqO4vJh6VOCGPwU4O0C2/Eqndh1Sc=
-github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.11.0 h1:WgqUCUt/lT6yXoQ8Wef0fsNn5cAuMK7+KT9UFRz2tcU=
-github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.11.0/go.mod h1:ZhrRA5XmEE3x3rhlzamx/JJvujdZoJ2uvgI7kR0iZvM=
-github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.8 h1:gegWiwZjBsf2DgiSbf5hpokZ98JVDMcWkUiigk6/KXc=
-github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.8/go.mod h1:2J8vzI/s+2shY9XHRApDkdgPo1TKT7P2u6fXeJKFnNQ=
+github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.12.0 h1:UIVDowFPwpg6yMUpPjGkYvf06K3RAiJXUhCxEwQVHRI=
+github.com/onsi/ginkgo/v2 v2.12.0/go.mod h1:ZNEzXISYlqpb8S36iN71ifqLi3vVD1rVJGvWRCJOUpQ=
+github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.10 h1:naR28SdDFlqrG6kScpT8VWpu1xWY5nJRCF3XaYyBjhI=
+github.com/onsi/gomega v1.27.10/go.mod h1:RsS8tutOdbdgzbPtzzATp12yT7kM5I5aElG3evPbQ0M=
 github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0 h1:apOUWs51W5PlhuyGyz9FCeeBIOUDA/6nW8Oi/yOhh5U=
 github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0/go.mod h1:0JzlMkj0TRzQZfJkVvzbP0HBR3IKzErnv2BNG4W4MAM=
-github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2 h1:2zx/Stx4Wc5pIPDvIxHXvXtQFW/7XWJGmnM7r3wg034=
-github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc2/go.mod h1:3OVijpioIKYWTqjiG0zfF6wvoJ4fAXGbjdZuI2NgsRQ=
+github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4 h1:oOxKUJWnFC4YGHCCMNql1x4YaDfYBTS5Y4x/Cgeo1E0=
+github.com/opencontainers/image-spec v1.1.0-rc4/go.mod h1:X4pATf0uXsnn3g5aiGIsVnJBR4mxhKzfwmvK/B2NTm8=
 github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0 h1:4DBwDE0NGyQoBHbLQYPwSUPoCMWR5BEzIk/f1lZbAQM=
 github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0/go.mod h1:iKH77koFhYxTK1pcRnkKkqfTogsbg7gZNVY4sRDYZ/4=
 github.com/stretchr/objx v0.1.0/go.mod h1:HFkY916IF+rwdDfMAkV7OtwuqBVzrE8GR6GFx+wExME=
 github.com/stretchr/testify v1.6.1/go.mod h1:6Fq8oRcR53rry900zMqJjRRixrwX3KX962/h/Wwjteg=
 github.com/stretchr/testify v1.7.0 h1:nwc3DEeHmmLAfoZucVR881uASk0Mfjw8xYJ99tb5CcY=
-golang.org/x/mod v0.10.0 h1:lFO9qtOdlre5W1jxS3r/4szv2/6iXxScdzjoBMXNhYk=
-golang.org/x/net v0.10.0 h1:X2//UzNDwYmtCLn7To6G58Wr6f5ahEAQgKNzv9Y951M=
-golang.org/x/net v0.10.0/go.mod h1:0qNGK6F8kojg2nk9dLZ2mShWaEBan6FAoqfSigmmuDg=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.12.0 h1:rmsUpXtvNzj340zd98LZ4KntptpfRHwpFOHG188oHXc=
+golang.org/x/net v0.14.0 h1:BONx9s002vGdD9umnlX1Po8vOZmrgH34qlHcD1MfK14=
+golang.org/x/net v0.14.0/go.mod h1:PpSgVXXLK0OxS0F31C1/tv6XNguvCrnXIDrFMspZIUI=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0 h1:ftCYgMx6zT/asHUrPw8BLLscYtGznsLAnjq5RH9P66E=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.3.0/go.mod h1:FU7BRWz2tNW+3quACPkgCx/L+uEAv1htQ0V83Z9Rj+Y=
 golang.org/x/sys v0.0.0-20191204072324-ce4227a45e2e/go.mod h1:h1NjWce9XRLGQEsW7wpKNCjG9DtNlClVuFLEZdDNbEs=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.9.0 h1:KS/R3tvhPqvJvwcKfnBHJwwthS11LRhmM5D59eEXa0s=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.9.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
-golang.org/x/text v0.9.0 h1:2sjJmO8cDvYveuX97RDLsxlyUxLl+GHoLxBiRdHllBE=
-golang.org/x/text v0.9.0/go.mod h1:e1OnstbJyHTd6l/uOt8jFFHp6TRDWZR/bV3emEE/zU8=
-golang.org/x/tools v0.9.3 h1:Gn1I8+64MsuTb/HpH+LmQtNas23LhUVr3rYZ0eKuaMM=
-golang.org/x/tools v0.9.3/go.mod h1:owI94Op576fPu3cIGQeHs3joujW/2Oc6MtlxbF5dfNc=
+golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0 h1:eG7RXZHdqOJ1i+0lgLgCpSXAp6M3LYlAo6osgSi0xOM=
+golang.org/x/sys v0.11.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
+golang.org/x/text v0.12.0 h1:k+n5B8goJNdU7hSvEtMUz3d1Q6D/XW4COJSJR6fN0mc=
+golang.org/x/text v0.12.0/go.mod h1:TvPlkZtksWOMsz7fbANvkp4WM8x/WCo/om8BMLbz+aE=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.12.0 h1:YW6HUoUmYBpwSgyaGaZq1fHjrBjX1rlpZ54T6mu2kss=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.12.0/go.mod h1:Sc0INKfu04TlqNoRA1hgpFZbhYXHPr4V5DzpSBTPqQM=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.28.0 h1:w43yiav+6bVFTBQFZX0r7ipe9JQ1QsbMgHwbBziscLw=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405 h1:yhCVgyC4o1eVCa2tZl7eS0r+SDo693bJlVdllGtEeKM=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
@@ -47,5 +47,5 @@ gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0/go.mod h1:RDklbk79AGWmwhnvt/jBztapEOGDOx6ZbXqjP6csGnQ=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.0-20200313102051-9f266ea9e77c/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 h1:fxVm/GzAzEWqLHuvctI91KS9hhNmmWOoWu0XTYJS7CA=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
-oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b h1:NYynybpqtG3lLTZMWNlrvUlcyGakCke57tg4TX6w2kA=
-oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230627113607-6b5bd4b4372b/go.mod h1:goptA58HogB/6sLN7KV6FgoiurcVxd5QBqv8wMVB0as=
+oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f h1:2Lx/b6oqh6vZST55SxNYNQJSZmOQZDQckdw34tI2bc4=
+oras.land/oras-go/v2 v2.2.1-0.20230822062013-e6d40b6ff29f/go.mod h1:GeAwLuC4G/JpNwkd+bSZ6SkDMGaaYglt6YK2WvZP7uQ=
diff --git a/test/e2e/go.work b/test/e2e/go.work
index 602d10f96..01071242e 100644
--- a/test/e2e/go.work
+++ b/test/e2e/go.work
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-go 1.20
+go 1.21
 
 use (
 	.
diff --git a/test/e2e/internal/testdata/foobar/const.go b/test/e2e/internal/testdata/foobar/const.go
index 66a0591f8..0ea5471f0 100644
--- a/test/e2e/internal/testdata/foobar/const.go
+++ b/test/e2e/internal/testdata/foobar/const.go
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ limitations under the License.
 package foobar
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
-
 	"github.com/opencontainers/go-digest"
 	ocispec "github.com/opencontainers/image-spec/specs-go/v1"
 	"oras.land/oras/test/e2e/internal/utils/match"
@@ -26,8 +24,6 @@ import (
 var (
 	Tag              = "foobar"
 	Digest           = "sha256:fd6ed2f36b5465244d5dc86cb4e7df0ab8a9d24adc57825099f522fe009a22bb"
-	Size             = 851
-	DescriptorStr    = fmt.Sprintf(`{"mediaType":"application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json","digest":"%s","size":%d}`, Digest, Size)
 	ManifestStateKey = match.StateKey{Digest: "fd6ed2f36b54", Name: "application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json"}
 
 	FileLayerNames = []string{
diff --git a/test/e2e/scripts/common.sh b/test/e2e/scripts/common.sh
index e1d40f919..7760a6578 100755
--- a/test/e2e/scripts/common.sh
+++ b/test/e2e/scripts/common.sh
@@ -15,14 +15,13 @@
 
 help () {
     echo "Usage"
-    echo "  run-registry <mount-root> <image-name> <container-name> <container-port> <deletion-enabled>"
+    echo "  run-registry <mount-root> <image-name> <container-name> <container-port>"
     echo ""
     echo "Arguments"
     echo "  mount-root       root mounting directory for pre-baked registry storage files."
     echo "  image-name       image name of the registry."
     echo "  container-name   container name of the registry service."
     echo "  container-port   port to export the registry service."
-    echo "  delete-enabled   if set to true, the registry service will be configured to allow deletion."
 }
 
 # run registry service for testing
@@ -62,7 +61,7 @@ run_registry () {
     try_clean_up $ctr_name
     docker run --pull always -d -p $ctr_port:5000 --rm --name $ctr_name \
         -u $(id -u $(whoami)) \
-        --env REGISTRY_STORAGE_DELETE_ENABLED=$5 \
+        --env REGISTRY_STORAGE_DELETE_ENABLED=true \
         --env REGISTRY_AUTH_HTPASSWD_REALM=test-basic \
         --env REGISTRY_AUTH_HTPASSWD_PATH=/etc/docker/registry/passwd \
         --mount type=bind,source=$mnt_root/docker,target=/var/lib/registry/docker \
diff --git a/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh b/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
index 08d555a77..b110e38c6 100755
--- a/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
+++ b/test/e2e/scripts/e2e.sh
@@ -49,16 +49,14 @@ run_registry \
   ${e2e_root}/testdata/distribution/mount \
   ghcr.io/oras-project/registry:v1.0.0-rc.4 \
   $oras_container_name \
-  $ORAS_REGISTRY_PORT \
-  true
+  $ORAS_REGISTRY_PORT
 
 echo " === preparing upstream distribution === "
 run_registry \
   ${e2e_root}/testdata/distribution/mount_fallback \
   registry:2.8.1 \
   $upstream_container_name \
-  $ORAS_REGISTRY_FALLBACK_PORT \
-  false
+  $ORAS_REGISTRY_FALLBACK_PORT
 
 echo " === run tests === "
 if ! ginkgo -r -p --succinct suite; then 
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/attach.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/attach.go
index 499a613da..b0e5fba68 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/attach.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/attach.go
@@ -43,7 +43,6 @@ var _ = Describe("ORAS beginners:", func() {
 		It("should show preview and help doc", func() {
 			out := ORAS("attach", "--help").MatchKeyWords(feature.Preview.Mark+" Attach", feature.Preview.Description, ExampleDesc).Exec()
 			gomega.Expect(out).Should(gbytes.Say("--distribution-spec string\\s+%s", regexp.QuoteMeta(feature.Preview.Mark)))
-			gomega.Expect(out).Should(gbytes.Say("--image-spec string\\s+%s", regexp.QuoteMeta(feature.Experimental.Mark)))
 		})
 
 		It("should fail when no subject reference provided", func() {
@@ -65,11 +64,6 @@ var _ = Describe("ORAS beginners:", func() {
 			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "oras.test", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, foobar.Tag), "--distribution-spec", "???").
 				ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("unknown distribution specification flag").Exec()
 		})
-
-		It("should fail if image spec is unkown", func() {
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "oras.test", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, foobar.Tag), "--image-spec", "???").
-				ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("unknown image specification flag").Exec()
-		})
 	})
 })
 
@@ -111,10 +105,9 @@ var _ = Describe("Common registry users:", func() {
 			subjectRef := RegistryRef(Host, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
 			prepare(RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
 			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-image").
+			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
 				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
 				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-
 			// validate
 			var index ocispec.Index
 			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
@@ -148,24 +141,6 @@ var _ = Describe("Common registry users:", func() {
 				ExpectFailure().
 				Exec()
 		})
-
-		It("should attach a file via a OCI Artifact", func() {
-			testRepo := attachTestRepo("artifact")
-			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(Host, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			prepare(RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-artifact").
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-
-			// validate
-			var index ocispec.Index
-			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(1))
-			Expect(index.Manifests[0].MediaType).To(Equal("application/vnd.oci.artifact.manifest.v1+json"))
-		})
 	})
 })
 
@@ -177,7 +152,7 @@ var _ = Describe("Fallback registry users:", func() {
 			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
 			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
 			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-image").
+			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
 				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
 				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
 
@@ -207,60 +182,13 @@ var _ = Describe("Fallback registry users:", func() {
 			Expect(index.Manifests[0].MediaType).To(Equal("application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json"))
 		})
 
-		It("should fail to attach again when cleaning referrers index", func() {
-			testRepo := attachTestRepo("fallback/fail-gc")
-			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-
-			// validate
-			var index ocispec.Index
-			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(1))
-			Expect(index.Manifests[0].MediaType).To(Equal(ocispec.MediaTypeImageManifest))
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "-a", "test.type=another.image").
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchErrKeyWords("Error: failed to delete dangling referrers index").
-				ExpectFailure().Exec()
-		})
-
-		It("should attach again and skip cleanning index", func() {
-			testRepo := attachTestRepo("fallback/skip-gc")
-			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-			// validate
-			var index ocispec.Index
-			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(1))
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "-a", "test.type=another.image", "--skip-delete-referrers").
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-			// validate
-			bytes = ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(2))
-		})
-
 		It("should attach a file via a OCI Image and generate referrer via tag schema", func() {
 			testRepo := attachTestRepo("fallback/tag_schema")
 			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
 			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
 			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
 			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-image", "--distribution-spec", "v1.1-referrers-tag").
+			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--distribution-spec", "v1.1-referrers-tag").
 				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
 				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
 
@@ -279,7 +207,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 		prepare := func(root string) {
 			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, foobar.Tag), Flags.ToLayout, LayoutRef(root, foobar.Tag)).Exec()
 		}
-
 		It("should attach a file to a subject", func() {
 			root := PrepareTempFiles()
 			subjectRef := LayoutRef(root, foobar.Tag)
@@ -289,16 +216,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
 		})
 
-		It("should attach and output warning for referrers deletion by default", func() {
-			root := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := LayoutRef(root, foobar.Tag)
-			prepare(root)
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", "-v", Flags.Layout, subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
-				MatchErrKeyWords("referrers deletion can only be enforced upon registry\n").
-				WithWorkDir(root).
-				Exec()
-		})
-
 		It("should attach a file to a subject and export the built manifest", func() {
 			// prepare
 			root := PrepareTempFiles()
@@ -323,7 +240,7 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 			subjectRef := LayoutRef(root, foobar.Tag)
 			prepare(root)
 			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", Flags.Layout, subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-image").
+			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", Flags.Layout, subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
 				WithWorkDir(root).
 				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
 
@@ -334,21 +251,5 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(1))
 			Expect(index.Manifests[0].MediaType).To(Equal("application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json"))
 		})
-		It("should attach a file via a OCI Artifact", func() {
-			root := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := LayoutRef(root, foobar.Tag)
-			prepare(root)
-			// test
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, Flags.Layout, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia), "--image-spec", "v1.1-artifact").
-				WithWorkDir(root).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-
-			// validate
-			var index ocispec.Index
-			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, Flags.Layout, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(1))
-			Expect(index.Manifests[0].MediaType).To(Equal("application/vnd.oci.artifact.manifest.v1+json"))
-		})
 	})
 })
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/cp.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/cp.go
index 5865ba0cb..4b49187fa 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/cp.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/cp.go
@@ -31,7 +31,6 @@ import (
 	"oras.land/oras/test/e2e/internal/testdata/foobar"
 	ma "oras.land/oras/test/e2e/internal/testdata/multi_arch"
 	. "oras.land/oras/test/e2e/internal/utils"
-	"oras.land/oras/test/e2e/internal/utils/match"
 )
 
 func cpTestRepo(text string) string {
@@ -246,34 +245,6 @@ var _ = Describe("Common registry users:", func() {
 
 var _ = Describe("OCI spec 1.0 registry users:", func() {
 	When("running `cp`", func() {
-		It("should fail to copy when cleaning referrers index", func() {
-			testRepo := cpTestRepo("fallback/fail-gc")
-			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			// prepare
-			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-			// test
-			ORAS("cp", "-r", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.FallbackSBOMImageReferrer.Digest.String()), RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, ""), "-v").
-				MatchErrKeyWords("Error: failed to delete dangling referrers index").
-				ExpectFailure().Exec()
-		})
-
-		It("should copy and skip cleaning referrers index", func() {
-			testRepo := cpTestRepo("fallback/skip-gc")
-			tempDir := PrepareTempFiles()
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			// prepare
-			prepare(RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef)
-			ORAS("attach", "--artifact-type", "test.attach", subjectRef, fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", foobar.AttachFileName, foobar.AttachFileMedia)).
-				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
-				MatchStatus([]match.StateKey{foobar.AttachFileStateKey}, false, 1).Exec()
-			// test
-			ORAS("cp", "-r", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.FallbackSBOMImageReferrer.Digest.String()), RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, ""), "--skip-delete-referrers").Exec()
-		})
-
 		It("should copy an image artifact and its referrers from a registry to a fallback registry", func() {
 			repo := cpTestRepo("to-fallback")
 			stateKeys := append(append(foobarStates, foobar.ImageReferrersStateKeys...), foobar.ImageReferrerConfigStateKeys...)
@@ -284,7 +255,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI spec 1.0 registry users:", func() {
 			ORAS("discover", "-o", "tree", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, repo, foobar.Digest)).
 				WithDescription("discover referrer via subject").MatchKeyWords(foobar.SignatureImageReferrer.Digest.String(), foobar.SBOMImageReferrer.Digest.String()).Exec()
 		})
-
 		It("should copy an image artifact and its referrers from a fallback registry to a registry", func() {
 			repo := cpTestRepo("from-fallback")
 			stateKeys := append(append(foobarStates, foobar.FallbackImageReferrersStateKeys...), foobar.ImageReferrerConfigStateKeys...)
@@ -363,12 +333,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI layout users:", func() {
 			Expect(srcManifest).To(Equal(dstManifest))
 		})
 
-		It("should copy and output verbosed warning for Feferrers deletion by default", func() {
-			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(Host, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), GinkgoT().TempDir(), Flags.ToLayout, "-v").
-				MatchErrKeyWords("referrers deletion can only be enforced upon registry\n").
-				Exec()
-		})
-
 		It("should copy an image from an OCI image layout to a registry via tag", func() {
 			layoutDir := GinkgoT().TempDir()
 			src := LayoutRef(layoutDir, "copied")
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/discover.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/discover.go
index c753edfce..22d717d02 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/discover.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/discover.go
@@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 
 	When("running discover command with table output", func() {
 		format := "table"
-		It("should direct referrers of a subject", func() {
+		It("should get direct referrers of a subject", func() {
 			referrers := []ocispec.Descriptor{foobar.SBOMImageReferrer, foobar.SBOMArtifactReferrer}
 			// prepare
 			subjectRef := LayoutRef(GinkgoT().TempDir(), foobar.Tag)
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/manifest.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/manifest.go
index 36d30bf0c..109e4ecc3 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/manifest.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/manifest.go
@@ -518,7 +518,9 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 			ORAS("manifest", "fetch-config", Flags.Layout, root).ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("Error:", "invalid image reference").Exec()
 		})
 	})
+})
 
+var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 	When("running `manifest push`", func() {
 		scratchSize := 2
 		scratchDigest := "sha256:44136fa355b3678a1146ad16f7e8649e94fb4fc21fe77e8310c060f61caaff8a"
@@ -545,15 +547,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 		}
 		descriptor := "{\"mediaType\":\"application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json\",\"digest\":\"sha256:f20c43161d73848408ef247f0ec7111b19fe58ffebc0cbcaa0d2c8bda4967268\",\"size\":246}"
 
-		It("should push and output verbosed warning for Feferrers deletion by default", func() {
-			manifestPath := WriteTempFile("manifest.json", manifest)
-			root := filepath.Dir(manifestPath)
-			prepare(root)
-			ORAS("manifest", "push", root, Flags.Layout, manifestPath, "--skip-delete-referrers=false").
-				WithWorkDir(root).
-				MatchErrKeyWords("referrers deletion can only be enforced upon registry\n").Exec()
-		})
-
 		It("should push a manifest from stdin", func() {
 			root := GinkgoT().TempDir()
 			prepare(root)
@@ -562,7 +555,6 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 				WithInput(strings.NewReader(manifest)).Exec()
 			validate(root, manifestDigest, "")
 		})
-
 		It("should push a manifest from stdin and tag", func() {
 			tag := "from-stdin"
 			root := GinkgoT().TempDir()
@@ -614,40 +606,3 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 		})
 	})
 })
-
-func pushTestRepo(text string) string {
-	return fmt.Sprintf("command/push/%d/%s", GinkgoRandomSeed(), text)
-}
-
-var _ = Describe("Fallback registry users:", func() {
-	When("running `manifest push`", func() {
-		manifest := fmt.Sprintf(`{"schemaVersion":2,"mediaType":"application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json","config":{"mediaType":"oras.test","digest":"sha256:44136fa355b3678a1146ad16f7e8649e94fb4fc21fe77e8310c060f61caaff8a","size":2},"subject":%s,"layers":[]}`, foobar.DescriptorStr)
-		It("should fail to push manifest when cleaning referrers index", func() {
-			testRepo := pushTestRepo("fallback/fail-gc")
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			// prepare
-			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef, "-r").Exec()
-			// test
-			ORAS("manifest", "push", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, ""), "-").
-				WithInput(strings.NewReader(manifest)).
-				ExpectFailure().
-				MatchErrKeyWords("failed to delete dangling referrers index").
-				Exec()
-		})
-		It("should push manifest and skip cleaning referrers index", func() {
-			testRepo := pushTestRepo("fallback/skip-gc")
-			subjectRef := RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, foobar.Tag)
-			// prepare
-			ORAS("cp", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, ArtifactRepo, foobar.Tag), subjectRef, "-r").Exec()
-			// test
-			ORAS("manifest", "push", RegistryRef(FallbackHost, testRepo, ""), "-", "--skip-delete-referrers").
-				WithInput(strings.NewReader(manifest)).
-				Exec()
-			// validate
-			var index ocispec.Index
-			bytes := ORAS("discover", subjectRef, "-o", "json").Exec().Out.Contents()
-			Expect(json.Unmarshal(bytes, &index)).ShouldNot(HaveOccurred())
-			Expect(len(index.Manifests)).To(Equal(2))
-		})
-	})
-})
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/push.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/push.go
index 17139fed4..0fe788a79 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/push.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/push.go
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ var _ = Describe("Remote registry users:", func() {
 	When("pushing to registy without OCI artifact support", func() {
 		repoPrefix := fmt.Sprintf("command/push/%d", GinkgoRandomSeed())
 		statusKeys := []match.StateKey{
-			foobar.ImageConfigStateKey("application/vnd.unknown.config.v1+json"),
+			foobar.ImageConfigStateKey("application/vnd.oci.empty.v1+json"),
 			foobar.FileBarStateKey,
 		}
 		It("should push files without customized media types", func() {
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ var _ = Describe("OCI image layout users:", func() {
 	tag := "e2e"
 	When("pushing to registy without OCI artifact support", func() {
 		statusKeys := []match.StateKey{
-			foobar.ImageConfigStateKey("application/vnd.unknown.config.v1+json"),
+			foobar.ImageConfigStateKey("application/vnd.oci.empty.v1+json"),
 			foobar.FileBarStateKey,
 		}
 
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go b/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
index 0878a7d7f..d5836ee26 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/command/tag.go
@@ -33,7 +33,11 @@ var _ = Describe("ORAS beginners:", func() {
 		})
 
 		It("should fail when provided manifest reference is not found", func() {
-			ORAS("tag", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, "i-dont-think-this-tag-exists")).ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("Error:").Exec()
+			ORAS("tag", RegistryRef(Host, ImageRepo, "i-dont-think-this-tag-exists"), "tagged").ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("Error:").Exec()
+		})
+
+		It("should fail when provided invalid reference", func() {
+			ORAS("tag", "list", "tagged").ExpectFailure().MatchErrKeyWords("Error:", "'list'").Exec()
 		})
 	})
 })
diff --git a/test/e2e/suite/scenario/oci_artifact.go b/test/e2e/suite/scenario/oci_artifact.go
index c426b7d79..bbd744e3c 100644
--- a/test/e2e/suite/scenario/oci_artifact.go
+++ b/test/e2e/suite/scenario/oci_artifact.go
@@ -82,10 +82,12 @@ var _ = Describe("Common OCI artifact users:", Ordered, func() {
 				WithWorkDir(tempDir).
 				WithDescription("attach again with manifest exported").Exec()
 
-			session = ORAS("discover", subject, "-o", "json", "--artifact-type", "test.artifact2").Exec()
-			digest = string(Binary("jq", "-r", ".manifests[].digest").WithInput(session.Out).Exec().Out.Contents())
-			fetched = ORAS("manifest", "fetch", RegistryRef(Host, repo, digest)).MatchKeyWords(foobar.AttachFileMedia).Exec()
-			MatchFile(filepath.Join(tempDir, pulledManifest), string(fetched.Out.Contents()), DefaultTimeout)
+			// FIXME: oras distribution doesn't support OCI image with artifactType field
+			// Below test can be run after https://github.com/oras-project/oras/issues/1071 is done.
+			// session = ORAS("discover", subject, "-o", "json", "--artifact-type", "test.artifact2").Exec()
+			// digest = string(Binary("jq", "-r", ".manifests[].digest").WithInput(session.Out).Exec().Out.Contents())
+			// fetched = ORAS("manifest", "fetch", RegistryRef(Host, repo, digest)).MatchKeyWords(foobar.AttachFileMedia).Exec()
+			// MatchFile(filepath.Join(tempDir, pulledManifest), string(fetched.Out.Contents()), DefaultTimeout)
 
 			ORAS("pull", RegistryRef(Host, repo, string(digest)), "-v", "-o", pullRoot, "--include-subject").
 				MatchStatus(append(foobar.FileStateKeys, foobar.AttachFileStateKey), true, 4).